bio 212 final
Terms
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- structure/function relationship
-
-structure determines function
-natural selection acts on these relationships
-Natural selection acts within physical laws & environmental constraints - universal principles of physiology
-
-structure/function relationship
-Homeostasis
-diffusion - homeostasis
-
-the maintenance of a constant internal environment
-environment affects macromolecule structure (proteins)
-homeostatic mechanisms (regulation, signaling, feedback)
-degree of regulation varies - systems used for regulation, feedback, and signaling
-
-endocrine
-nervous - hormones
- signaling molecule
- how to get high diffusion rate
-
-higher A
-higher change p
-lower d - how body plans meet challenge of diffusion
-
-diffusion distance kept small
-circulatory systems for animals
-body plans act to control surface area - vertebrate tissues
-
-epithelial
-connective
-muscle
-nervous - epithelial tissues
-
-cellular boundary between inside and outside of body
-all substances entering/leaving body must pass through epithelial - functions of epithelial
-
-barrier/protection
-secretion
-absorption - muscle tissue
-
-motors of animal body
-abundance of protein filaments that effect movement - nervous tissue
-
-senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal
-contains neurons & glial cells - neurons
- -nerve cells; transmit nerve impulses
- glial cells
- -help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
- animal energetics
- -flow of energy through an animal
- animals as consumers
-
-gains: food
-losses: heat, locomotion, growth, reproduction - Metabolic rate (MR)
- -energy animal uses per unit time
- calorie
- -unit of energy
- functions of digestive systems
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-storage
-secretion
-digestion
-absorption
-elimination - types of digestive systems
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-gastrovascular cavity
-gut - gastrovascular cavity
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-one opening
-unspecialized
-Cnidarians, flatworms - gut
-
-two openings (mouth & anus)
-specialized areas
-many inverts & all verts - parts of digestive system
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-mouth
-salivary glands
-esophagus
-stomach
-liver
-gall bladder
-pancreas
-small intestine
-large intestine
-anus - mucosa
-
-epithelium
-often convoluted
-secretes mucus - lumen
-
-space
-"outside" - circular & longitudinal muscle
-
-antagonistic smooth muscle pair
-can perform peristalsis - mouth
-
-muscular action & teeth break up food
-storage - saliva from salivary glands
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-lubricates food
-secretion of sugar-digesting enzyme - esophagus
- -moves food to stomach via peristalsis
- stomach; structure
-
-highly convoluted
-expandable - stomach; function
-
-storage
-secretion (HCl & protein-digesting enzyme)
-some digestion
-muscular churning: breaks up food - pancreas; structure
- -exocrine gland: invaginated epithelium & duct
- pancreas; function
-
-production of digestive enzymes & bicarbonate
-secreted into duct - liver; structure
- -exocrine gland
- liver; function
- -secretion of bile
- bile
- -salts & pigments
- gall bladder
- -bile storage sac
- small intestine; structure
-
-convoluted
-villus
-microvilli - villus
- -highly vascularized
- microvilli
- -folding of plasma membrane
- small intestine; function
-
-digestion
-absorption (water and digested food) - large intestine; structure
-
-large diameter
-low surface area - large intestine; function
- -concentration of waste by water absorption
- complexity of digestion
-
-many hormones involved
-sense progress of digestion
-signals initiate downstream processes (gastrin, CCK, secretin)
-negative feedback - gastrin
- -promotes secretion
- CCK
- -triggers enzyme release
- secretin
- -triggers bicarb release
- homeostasis central to nutrition involves
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-hormones
-signaling
-feedback - cecum
-
-blind sac at entrance of large intestine
-in herbivores: site for symbiotic microbes (high digestion of plant cell walls) - ruminant herbivores
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-4 chambered stomach
-Chamber for fermentation by symbionts
-regurgitate & ruminate
-result: thorough digestion of plant material - ruminate
- -chew cud
- gut symbioses
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-cecum
-ruminant herbivores - types of circulatory systems
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-gastrovascular cavities
-open circulation
-closed circulation - open circulatory system
-
-hemolymph moves through vessels and extracellular spaces
-most molluscs & arthropods - hemplymph
- -kind of equal to blood
- closed circulatory system
-
-blood circulated entirely in vessels
-annelids, cephalopods, vertebrates - function of vertebrates circulatory system
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-transport (gases, metabolites, wastes)
-regulation (transport of hormones & thermoregulation)
-protection (clotting: maintenance & immunity) - components of vertebrate blood
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-plasma
-blood cells - plasma
-
-55% of blood
-water
-solutes (ions, metabolites, wastes, hormones, proteins) - blood cells
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-45% of blood
-Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
-white blood cells (leukocytes)
-platelets - erythrocytes
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-RBC
-contain hemoglobin
-function: gas exchange & transport - hemoglobin
- -oxygen binding protein
- leukocytes
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-WBC
-1% of cells
-nucleate
-different types
-function: immunity & defense - platelets
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-cell bits: pinch off from cells in marrow
-function: clotting - sphincter muscle
- -close capillary beds
- close beds to..
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-direct flow elsewhere
-thermoregulate
-control blood pressure
- types vessels
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-veins
-arteries
-capillaries - interstitial fluid
-
-plasma leaking into interstitial spaces
-artery pressure high (forces fluid out of capillaries)
-85% of fluid re-enters capillaries by osmosis - connections with lymphatic system
-
-interstitial fluid
-excess fluid (lymph) drains into lymphatic system - hearts
- -cardiac muscle
- heart; function
- -pump blood through vessels in body
- heart; structure
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-atrium
-ventricle
-valves - atrium
- -chamber collecting blood from veins
- ventricle
- -muscular pumping chamber
- valves
- -closeable flaps between chambers
- 2 chamber hearts
- fish
- 3 chamber hearts
- amphibians & reptiles
- 4 chamber hearts
- -mammals & birds
- respiration
- -uptake of oxygen from environment and disposal of CO2 into environment
- echinoderm gills
-
-dermal gills (high area)
-gas exchange across 2 thin epithelia (low diffusion distance)
-epithelia ciliated (high change p) - fish gills; structure
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-operculum (gill cover)
-buccal cavity
-gills
-opercular cavity - fish gills
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-water movement one way
-countercurrent exchange maximizes diffusion - insect tracheal system
-
-series of rigid tubes (trachae) lined by exoskeleton
-trachea reach every cell
-closeable spiracles to lower water loss
-movement largely via diffusion
-circulatory system not involved
-good system for small body size - lungs
-
-expandable, internalized sacs supported by body
-covered in membrane
-lie in thoracic cavity
-connected to outside by tubes
-supported by cartilage - alveoli
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-bronchioles branch into blind-ended sacs
-highly vascularized
-site of gas exchange - inhalation
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-contraction of diaphragm (moves down)
-rib muscles contract
-occurs via negative pressure - exhalation
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-thorax and lungs elastic
-relax muscles - bird lung
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-1 way flow through lung
-air sacs and lungs
-lungs only site of gas exchange
-no mixing (more efficient) - partial pressure
- -measure of gas quantity
- 3 ways to transport CO2
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-hemoglobin picks up CO2 and H+
-removal of bicarbonate
-diffuses into blood plasma - osmotic homeostasis
-
-solutes and water must be maintained within narrow limits in body
-different environments present different challenges - osmolarity
- -the concentration of all solutes in a fluid
- osmolyte
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-solute
-inorganic, charged ions (Na+, Cl-)
-organic, uncharged (glucose, amino acids) - osmotic concentration of fluids
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-seawater=1000
-freshwater=3-10
-mammalian plasma=300 - osmoconformers
- -organisms that allow osmolarity of fluids to conform with environment
- problem with osmoconformers
-
-ionic osmolytes destablizing to macromolecules
-solution: use uncharged organic molecules as osmolytes - TMAO
- -organic osmolyte that protects proteins from urea
- osmoregulators
- -organisms maintaining and actively regulating an osmolarity different from the environment
- problem with bony fish in seawater
- -constantly losing water to seawater
- solutions for bony fish constantly losing water
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-drink lots of water
-produce little urine
-excrete salts, across gills and in urine - problem with bony fish in freshwater
- -constantly gaining water from environment
- solutions for bony fish gaining water
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-drink no water
-uptake ions in gills
-produce copious dilute urine - problem with terrestrial animals & osmoregulating
- -threat of desiccation in air
- solutions to terrestrial animals
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-drink
-reduce water loss
-water conservation in excretory organs - excretion
- -disposal of nitrogenous waste
- function of excretory organs
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-perform excretion
-maintain water balance - types of nitrogenous wastes
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-ammonia (fish)
-urea (mammals and sharks)
-uric acid (reptiles & birds) - general characteristics of excretory system
-
-all systems have same general function
-forms are highly diverse - filtration
- -water and solutes forced by pressure across membranes into tubule
- reabsorption
- -valuable substance return to blood
- secretion
- -other substances extracted from body
- malphighian tubules
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-present in insects & spiders
-superb water conservation
-uric acid out with feces - vertebrate kidney
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-renal cortex (outside)
-renal medulla (inside)
-made up of a network of nephrons - components of nephron
-
-glomerulus
-proximal tubule
-distal tubule
-loop of henle (looping tubule)
-vasa recta (capillary net)
-collecting duct - glomerulus function
- -filtration of:
- *actual* glomerulus funtion
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-filtration of:
-water
-salts
-urea
-metabolites - loop of henle function
- -active and passive reabsorption of water and salt
- collecting duct function
- -reabsorption and excretion
- nerve nets
-
-simplest
-brain absent - central nervous system (CNS)
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-brains
-nerve cords - CNS & peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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-brains
-nerve cords
-ganglia - sensory cells
- -diverse and present in cnidarians to humans
- diversity in nervous system organization..
- -correlates with lifestyle
- sensory input
-
-receptor detects stimuli
-external (light, sound)
-internal (blood pressure, muscle tension) - interneurons
- -integrate: analyze and interpret
- motorneurons
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-communicate with effector cells
-muscles->effect movement - nerve tissue
-
-neurons
-schwann cells
-supportive cells - neuron structure
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-dendrite
-cell body
-schwann cells
-axon - synapse
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-space between cells
-site of cell-cell communication - Neuron structure #2
- -form varies with function
- impulse transmission ungated ion channels
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-always open
-allow ions to pass through membranes - impulse transmission gated ion channels
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-open and close in response to stimuli
-3 types (stretch, chemical, voltage) - resting potential
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-all cells have membrane potential
-electrical charge different across membranes
-membrane is polarized
-maintained by active & passive transport, ungated channels and pumps - resting potential in neurons
-
-70mV
-inside negative
-outside positive - action potential
-
-transmits signal down axon
-signal from changed polarization of membrane
-self propagating, directional - action potential and myelinated nerves
- -impulses travel faster by jumping between schwann cells
- synapses (process)
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-action potential arrives
-synaptic vessels fuse with membrane
-neurotransmitter binds chemical gated channel
-channel opens
-ions rush in
-impulse propagated
-neurotransmitter released and crosses cleft - somatic nervous system
-
-signals to and from skeletal muscles
-response to external stimuli - autonomic nervous system
-
-signals to and from cardiac and smooth muscle and endocrine system
-response to internal stimuli
-important in homeostasis