Rathus-Biology & Behaviour Chapter 2
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- Who was Charles Darwin?
- 19th century British naturalist
- What did Charles Darwin do?
- observed how species varied from island to island and noted that "favorable variations" were preserved and unfavorable ones wer not. That's how he founded his theory of evolution
- What are some of the basic concepts of the theory of evolution?
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Struggle for existence
Mutations
Natural selection - What is stuggle for existence?
- refers to t he competition among species and among members within a species to survive & reproduce.
- What are mutations?
- small random variations that change organisms ability to adapt. if they enhance survival they are likely to be preserved.
- what is natural selection?
- refers to finding organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive & transmit genes to subsequent generations.
- what is evolutionary psychology?
- studies ways adaptation & natural selection are connected with mental processes & behaviour.
- what do evolutionary psychologists suggest?
- that not only physical traits but also patterns of behavior including social behaviour evolve & transmit from generation to generation
- what is meant by the concept "instinct"?
- stereotypical behavior pattern that i nearly identical among the members of a species.
- When does "instinct" occur?
- when the individual is reared in isolation from others of its kind
- what is meant by the concept of "heredity?
- Heredity involves the biological transmission of traits from generation to generation
- what is meant by the concept "genetics"?
- genetics is the area of biology that studies heredity.
- what is meant by the concept "behavioral genetics"?
- they are concerned with the genetic transmission of traits that give rise to behavior & focuses on individual differences.
- what is meant by the concept "molecular genetics"?
- attempts to identify specific genes that are connected with behavior & mental processes
- what are the roles of genes in heredity?
- genes are biochemical material that regulate development of traits.
- what are the role of chromosomes in heredity?
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-humans have 46 in 23 pairs.
-molecules of DNA form a twisting ladder -23 from each parent -sex chromosomes & specific genes (ie SRY) determine sex of child. - Whatis SRY connected with?
- SRY also connected with aggressive behavior.
- What is different about the chromosomes of people with Down Syndrome?
- They have an extra chromosome on the 21st pair
- what are kinship studies?
- helps determine influences of genetic & environmental factors on hehavior & mental processes.
- what is useful about kinship studies with identical twins?
- they share the same genetic code;therefore, differences reflect environmental factors.
- what evidence exits when adopted children are more similar to their natural parents in a particular trait
- there is a genetic role in the expression of that trait
- what is selective breeding?
- when one breeds offspring that are closes to a desired trait & continues to breed their offspring that are closer to the goal.
- what have humans selectively bred?
- animals, including dogs, for both physical & behavioral traits
- what are neurons?
- cells that transmit info through neural impulses & glial cells which mainly serve support functions.
- Describe a neuron
- has a cell body;dendrites; trunklike axons;
- What are neuron dendrites?
- they receive messages
- What are neuron axons?
- trunklike axons which conduct & then tranxmit messages to other cells by means of chemicals called neurotransmitters.
- Many neurons have a myelin coating that insulates their axon. What does this do?
- allows for more efficient conduction of messages.
- What are afferrent neurons?
- they transmit sensory messages to the CNS (central nervous system)
- what are efferent neurons?
- they donduct messages from the CNS that stimulate glands or cause muscles to contract.
- what are neural imulses
- an electrical charge is conducted along an axon thru a process that allows sodium ions to enter the cell & then pumps them out.
- What is the neurons resting potential? action potential?
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resting: -70
action: +40 - what happens when a neuron fires
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they release neurotransmitters.all or nothing principle. up to 100/
per second. after firing is a refractory period when neurons do not receive messages from other neurons. - what is a synapse?
- consists of an axon terminal from transmitting neuron; dendrite receiving neuron & fluid filled synaptic cleft between the 2
- which neurotransmitters are of interest to psychologists?
- acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, GABA, and endorphins
- what does an acetylcholine neurotransmitter do?
- is involved in muscle contractions & memory
- what does a dopamine neurotransmitter do?
- imbalances have been linked to Parkinson's disease & schizophrenia
- what does a norepiniphrine neurotransmitter do?
- accelerates the heartbeat & other body processes
- what does a serotonin neurotransmitter do?
- is involved in eating, sleep, and emotional arousal
- what does a GABA neurotransmitter do?
- inhibits anxiety
- what does an endorphin neurotransmitter do?
- naturally occurring painkillers
- what are the parts of the nervous system?
- one of the systems that regulates the body. Involved in thought process, emotional response, heartbeat, motor activity and so on
- what does a nerve consist of?
- a bundle of axons and dendrites
- what are the divisions of the peripheral nervous system? (2)
- somatic & autonomic
- what does the somatic nervous system do?
- transmits sensory info about skeletal muscles, skin & joints to the CNS. Controls skeletal muscular activity.
- what does the autonomic nervous (ANS)system do?
- regulates the glands & activities such as heartbeat, digestion, & dilation of pupils.
- what are the 2 divisions of the ANS?
- sympathetic & parasympathetic
- what does the sympathetic division of the ANS do?
- helps expend the body's resources such as when fleeing from a predator
- what does the parasympathetic division of the ANS do?
- helps build the body's reserves
- what are the divisions of the CNS?
- brain & spinal cord
- what is involved in our reflexes?
- spinal cord
- what is gray matter?
- nonmyelinated neurons, and white matter, which is composed of bundles of myelinated (whitish) axons.
- how do researchers learn about the functions of the brain?
- by studying the effects of accidents & purposeful damage to the brain & waves emitted by the brain.testing electrical stimulation response. viewing CAT scan, PET scans & MRI's
- what are the stuctures of the hindbrain?
- medulla,pons,cerebellum,
- what does the medulla do?
- regulates the heart rate, blood pressure & respiration.
- what do the pons do?
- involved in movement, attention, & respiration
- what does the cerebellum do?
- involved in balance & coordination.
- what does the reticular activating system do?
- involved in wakefulness & sleep.
- where can the reticular activating system be found?
- begins in the hindbrain & continues thru the midbrain in the th forebrain.
- what is included in the borebrain?
- thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system,& the cerebrum
- what does the thalamus do?
- serves as a relay station for sensory stimulation
- what does the hypothalamus do?
- regulates body temperature & various aspects of motivation & emotion, such as eating & sexual behavior
- what does the limbic system do?
- involved in memory, emotion, & motivation
- what does the cerebrum do?
- is the brain's center of thinking & language
- what are the parts of the cerebral cortex? (2 hemispheres and 4 lobes)
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left & right hemispheres
lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, & occipital - where can the visual cortex be found?
- in the occipital lobe
- where can the auditory cortex be found?
- in the temporal lobe
- where can the somatosensory cortex be found?
- behind the central fissure in the parietal lobe
- what is the purpose of the prefrontal cortex?
- may be the executive center of the brain - making plans, solving problems, drawing upon sensory info from other areas of the cortex as needed
- what parts of the cerebral cortex are involved in thinking & language?
- left hemisphere, near the intersecion of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes.
- what is Wernicke's area?
- in the temporal lobe responds mainly to auditory info
- what is Broca's area?
- located in the frontal lobe and is mainly responsible for speech
- damage to Wernick's results in what?
- Wernick's aphasia (a problem in understanding
- damage to Broca's area results in what?
- Broca's aphasia (producing language)
- what does it mean to be left brained?
- more involved in cognitive functions involving logical analysis & problem solving
- what does it mean to be right brained?
- superior in visual-spatial functions, aesthetic & emotional responses & creative mathematical reasoning.
- what is common amoung left handed people
- learning disabilities are more common, but so is creativity.
- why are people right handed or left handed?
- appears to have a genetic component
- what happens when a person's brain is split in two?
- they can describe a pencil held in the hand that is connected to the hemisphere that contains language functions, but not when held in the other hand
- what is the endocrine system?
- consists of ductless glands, that secrete hormones
- what does the pituitary gland secrete?
- growth hormone
- what does prolactin regulate?
- maternal behavior in lower animals and stimulates production of milk in women
- what odes oxytocin stimulate?
- labor in pregnant women
- The pineal homrmone melatonin is connected with?
- sleep-wake cycle & the onset of puberty.
- what does thyroxin affect?
- the body's metabolism & deficiency in childhood is connected with mental retardation.
- what does the adrenal cortex produce?
- steroids, which promote the development of muscle mass and increases activity level
- what does the adrenal medulla secrete?
- epinephrine (adrenaline) which increases the metabolic rate and is involved in general emotional arousal
- what are the sex hormones responsible for?
- prenatal sexual differentaiation. Female sex hormones regulate the menstral cycle.