EFB-385 CVA Lecture Review (Comprehensive)

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EVOLUTIONARY EMBRYOLOGY

Timing of development

HETEROCHRONY

A change in developmental timing such that features occur earlier or later than in an ancestor

Name the 4 parts of the ecomorphological clock.

What are the 2 types of paedomorphosis?

1. Progenesis (maturing earlier than ancestor)
2. Neoteny (retaining larval shape)

What organism is an example of neoteny?

Axolotl

RECAPITULATION

Sequential appearance of ancestral features during ontogeny

Who proposed "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" and used artistic license in the production of evidence? In what year?

Ernst Haeckel, 1866

What is one reason embryos look similar?

Trying not to modify basic components due to energetic costs and likelihood of failure in experimentation

The integument is the largest ____ and exists side-by-side with the ____ system.

largest, nervous

EPIDERMIS

Layer of the integument closest to the environment

What are the 6 layers of the integument (distal to medial)?

Stratum....

1. Corneum
2. Lucidum
3. Granulosum
4. Spinosum
5. Basale
6. Dermis

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Name the pink structure.

Unguis

Name the 6 structures that support a fingernail.

What is the function of the stratum corneum?

Sheds water

What does the stratum granulosum consist of?

Keratohyalin granules

DERMIS

Deepest layer of the integument containing collagenous tissue (leather)

COLLAGEN

Basic structural fiber of the animal kingdom

What are 4 glands arising from the dermis?

1. Apocrine gland
2. Melanophore
3. Sebaceous gland
4. Eccrine gland

CHROMATOPHORES

Neural crest derivatives in fishes and invertebrates that contain pigment and reflect light

ENAMEL

Hardest material in the vertebrate body

Label the 4 structures associated with the deeper cutaneous layers.

Caroline M. Pond studied the mechanics of what?

Fat deposition

Who classified the structural derivatives of the integument? In what year?

Melvin Moss, 1972

What are the 3 Structural Derivatives of the Integument?

1. Epidermal (exclusively epidermal cells)
2. Epidermal-Dermal (structural contributer)
3. Mesodermal (exclusively mesodermal cells)

Hair, nails, and beaks result from what structural derivative of the integument?

Epidermal

Fish scales and teeth result from what structural derivative?

Epidermal-dermal

The operculum and clavicle result from what structural derivative?

Mesodermal

Who described the processes by which structural derivatives of the integument create unique features like feathers and hair?

Richard Krejsa

What are the 3 processes by which structural derivatives of the integument create unique features like scales or hair?

1. Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions (EMI)
2. Delamination (DEL)
3. Functional Epithelial Extinction (FEE)

Feathers and hair result from two variants of what structural derivative process?

Epithelial mesenchymal interactions (EMI)

Guppy skin results from what structural derivative process?

Delamination (DEL)

Name this process, its components, and its results.

Name this process, its components, and an example result.

What causes integumental patterns?

Embryonic basement lamellae

What are 4 hard tissue derivatives?

1. Enamel
2. Ganoin
3. Dentine
4. Bone

What is the primary component of enamel?

Hydroxyapatite (mineral)

What percent of enamel material is organic?

Can enamel be altered once it is laid down?

No.

Enamel arises from the ______.

ectoderm

Ganoin is a ____ enamel that is ____.

laminar, layered

What kind of enamel is dentine?

Soft

What percent of dentine material is organic?

30%

Is it possible to alter dentine after it is laid down?

Yes

Before bones were placed in skeletons, where were they placed?

Armor

How many bone layers did ancient dermal armor have?

Who proposed that an active lifestyle facilitates the formation of hydroxyapatite? In what year?

Rubin and Bennett, 1987

Name the components of bone armor on a Paleozoic Agnathan.

In the musculoskeletal system, bone serves as ______ tissue.

connective

What are the 2 types of bone development?

1. Intramembranous (membrane bone)
2. Cartilage replacement (endochondral bone

What 2 specialized cell types do mesenchymes become within an intramembranous bone?

1. Fibrocytes
2. Osteoblasts

Name the 6 components of this generic intramembranous bone.

CARTILAGE

Sulphated polysaccharide gel organized into a network of collagenous fibers

What are 2 characteristics of hyaline cartilage fibers?

1. Sparse numbers
2. Thin

Name the 5 components of hyaline cartilage.

FASCIA

Connective tissue that envelops muscle; product of mesenchyme

What do mesenchyme cells do before they differentiate?

Aggregate in sheets

HAVERSION SYSTEM

Osteon; fundamental functional unit of compact bone; consists of several lamellae (layers of compact bone tissue) around a central canal, the Haversion canal

OSTEOCLAST

Resorb bone; multinucleate with many vesicles and vacuoles; result from stromal cells in the presence of osteoblasts

ICONOCLAST

"Breaking an icon"; related to the word osteoclast

Name the 5 components of a diarthrosis. Which one is filled with synovial fluid?

The joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid.

The backbone is generated from _______, a subdivision of the _______.

sclerotome, mesoderm

Name the 7 components of a generic vertebra.

What 2 groups of organisms have rachitomous vertebrae?

Crossopterygians, (some) labyrinthodonts

What group of animals have stereospondylus vertebrae?

Temnospondyls (large aquatic amphibians)

CONDYLE

Rounded articular area (ex. occipital condyle)

How many condyles does a fish skull have?

How many condyles does an amphibian skull have?

Between what 2 vertebrae is the framework enabling a "no" (side-to-side) head motion?

Atlas, axis

GILL ARCH THEORY

The vertebrate limb is derived from branchial arches

Who proposed the gill arch theory?

Carl Gegenbaur

FIN-FOLD THEORY

Vertebrate paired limbs are derived from ventrolateral skin folds in basal fishes

P1 COMPLEX

Shoulder girdle

Name 5 features of the P1 complex in bony fishes.

Cleithrum = dermal Scapula = endochondral

Name the 6 features of the P1 complex in monotremes.

Clavicle = dermal Scapula = endochondral

What are these structures? What group of organisms is each one from? What does the difference between the structures tell you about vertebrate evolution?

P1 complex (shoulder girdle)
Left: bony fish
Right: monotreme

Moving forward in vertebrate evolution, there is less dermally-derived bone and more endochondrally-derived bone.

BASAL HYPOTHESIS

Proximal limb elements are derived from basal pterygiophores

BRACHIUM

Humerus

ANTEBRACHIUM

Radius and ulna

MANUS

Carpals/Metacarpals/Phalanges

STYLO-

Upper hand

ZEUGO-

Lower hand

AUTO-

Hand

RADIALE

Carpal on the side of the hand closest to the radius

ULNARE

Carpal on the side of the hand closest to the ulna

What are the 8 carpals?

1. Scaphoid
2. Lunate
3. Tripisciform
4. Pisciform
5. Trapezium
6. Trapezoid
7. Capitulate
8. Hammer

Students Like The Prof To Teach Complex Hypotheses

What 3 changes occurred during the evolution of the P2 complex (pelvic girdle)?

1. Simple plate --- 3 bones
2. No contact --- Broad contact
3. Minor element --- Major element

P2 COMPLEX

Pelvic girdle

In reptiles the ilium rotates _____.

forward

GAIT

How legs move relative to the body and other legs

ZEUGOPODIUM

Lower hind leg

CALCONEUM

Heel bone

ASTRAGALUS

Bone foot rolls on

TIBIALE

Tarsal on the side of the foot closest to the tibia

FIBULARE

Tarsal on the side of the foot closest to the fibula

CENTRALIA

Tarsal around the center of the foot

What part of the skeleton is the most diagnostic? What are its 4 diagnostic components?

Skull

1. Braincase
2. Facial bones
3. Upper jaw
4. Gill arches

What are 2 animals that exhibit noble mobility?

1. Snake: swinging maxilla
2. Rabbit: cranial kinesis

What are the 3 bones of the head?

1. Chondrocranium (endo-, neuro-, braincase)
2. Dermatocranium (dermal covering)
3. Splanchnocranium (gill arches + derivatives)

The dermatocranium covers the braincase, but what else can it cover?

Lower jaw

What are the 4 regions of the chondrocranium (rostral to caudal)?

1. Ethmoid
2. Optic
3. Otic
4. Occipital

Name the 6 elements of the developing braincase in the chick embryo (left). Name the 6 regions of the braincase that develop (right).

What are 3 derivations of the visceral arches?

1. Hyoid apparatus
2. Laryngeal skeleton
3. Jaw and ear ossicles

Tracing evolution forward from MLRs to mammals, what integration of functions has the skull evolved toward?

Being able to chew, listen and breathe simultaneously

The excavation of the dermatocranium in mammal evolution is associated with what?

Origins of large jaw muscles

What are the 4 musculoskeletal components in a kick-off motion of the human leg?

1. Vastus lateralis
2. Rectus femoralis
3. Sartorius
4. Patella

QUADRATUS

Four muscles involved in the extension of the leg and movement of the femur:

1. Vastus lateralis
2. Rectus femoralis
3. Sartorius
4. Patella

SUPRACORACOIDEUS (bird)

Raises wing

Sternum-humerus

SUPRASPINATUS

Abducts arm at shoulder joint

Supraspinous fossa-Greater tubercle

Inn. C5/C6

INFRASPINATUS

Adducts arm, rotates glenohumeral joint

Infraspinous fossa-Greater tubercle

C5/C6

The puboischiofemoraus internus of reptiles becomes the _____ complex of mammals.

ilipsoas

ILIOPSOAS

Hip flexor

Combination: psoas major, psoas minor, iliacus

Vertebrae-lesser trochanter

The _____ of reptiles becomes the gluteal muscles of mammals.

iliofemoralis

What are the 3 groups of muscles in the Kardon hind/ventral section of reptile limbs?

1. Puboischiofemoralis externus (rotates femur), adductor femoris (adducts femur)
2. Flexor tibialis (flexes tibia)
3. Gastrocnemius (adducts foot)

What are the 3 groups of muscles in the Kardon hind/ventral section of mammal limbs?

1. Obturator externus/quadratus femorus (rotates femur), adductor longus/adductor magnus (adducts femur)
2. Gracilis/semimembranosus/semitendinosus/biceps femoris (flexes tibia)
3. Gastrocnemius (adducts foot

ZONE OF COMPLEXITY AND DANGER

Palate/throat

BUCCAL CAVITY

Region from the lips to the start of the Eustachian tube

STOMODEUM

Embryonic depression between the brain and the pericardium; becomes the mouth

LIPS

Outer margin of epidermis and connective tissue around the mouth

What is a feature of lips unique to fishes, birds/turtles, and humans respectively?

Fishes: barbels
Birds/Turtles: keratin
Humans: no stratum corneum

What are the 5 functions of buccal secretions?

1. Maintain oral membranes
2. Lubricate food
3. Neutralize prey toxins
4. Initiate chemical digestion
5. Create venom for toxification and digestion

What 4 cranial nerves innervate the tongue?

V, VII, IX and XII

What are the 5 functions of the tongue?

1. Taste
2. Speech
3. Manipulation
4. Capture
5. Regulation of Temperature

Fish buccal secretions are ____, while tetrapod buccal secretions can be mucous or ____. Bird buccal secretions can produce ___-_____ ___.

mucous, serous, nest-building glue

What are 3 characteristics of the tetrapod tongue?

1. Derived from arches 1, 2, 3
2. Sac-like and muscular

What are the 3 glands responsible for buccal secretions?

1. Parotid (above mouth)
2. Sublingual (below mouth)
3. Mandibular (jaw)

What cranial nerve innervates teeth?

What are the 3 levels of a mature tooth? What are the 3 compositional layers?

What are the 2 classes of tooth shape in vertebrates?

1. Homodont
2. Heterodont

What are "the 4 Cs" of mammal molars?

1. Crucial to lifestyle
2. Complex
3. Costle to repair
4. Cusps occlude

OCCLUSION

Cusps (esp. in molars) fitting together with indents on opposing teeth when the mouth is closed

Label the 6 components of the crossopterygian middle ear. Which component arises from the dermatocranium? What overlays the middle ear?

Angular arises from the dermatocranium. The middle ear is covered by the operculum.

What are the 2 processes that occur in the middle ear during the transition from crossopterygians to labyrinthodonts?

1. Autostyli develops
2. Hyomandibula becomes columella (still occupying spiracular pouch/middle ear)

What do the columella, quadrate, and articular develop into during the transition from labyrinthodonts to mammals?

Stapes, incus, and malleus respectively

Name the 7 components of the mammalian middle ear.

FENESTRA OVALIS

"Oval window"; membrane-covered opening connecting the middle ear to the inner ear

LOAD

Force applied

STRESS

Force/Area

STRAIN

Change in shape

MODULUS

Stress/Strain

COMPRESSION

Force moving into a bone, or compressing it

TENSION

Force pulling out on a bone

Compact Bone - Compressive Strength

1330-2100 kg/cm^2

Compact Bone - Tensile Strength

620-1050 kg/cm^2

Compact Bone - Shear Strength

500-1176 kg/cm^2

RESISTANCE

R = constant X width X height^2

Greater on-edge

TORQUE

T = force X lever arm; twisting force about a pivot

In what 3 ways can F(out) be increased?

1. Increase F(in)
2. Increase lever arm length
3. Shorten output arm length

TENDON

Living tissue that connects muscle to bone; fiber matrix laid down by fibryocytes

APONEUROSIS

Flat sheet of connective tissue (tendons)

SESAMOID BONE

Bone inserted in tendons, ex. patella

TRUE/FALSE: Tendons contain proprioceptors.

TRUE

Tendon - Strength

900 kg/cm^2

LIGAMENT

Collagenous, often elastic fibers that bind or tie muscle and bone

What are 2 examples of how animal bodies utilize ligaments?

1. Retracted cat claws
2. Lifted horse head (no muscles used)

What are 3 methods biologists use to determine muscle function?

1. Electromyography
2. Electrical stimulation
3. Anatomical examination

What are 7 types of muscles?

1. Flexors
2. Adductors
3. Levators
4. Protractors
5. Sphincters
6. Supinators
7. Antagonists

KINESIOLOGY

Study of muscles/muscular movement

ISOTONIC CONTRACTION

Contraction without a change in tone (muscle shortens)

ISOMETRIC CONTRACTION

Contraction without a change in length

What are the 5 scales of muscle (largest to smallest)?

1. Muscle
2. Fascicle (bundle of muscle fibers)
3. Fiber (long multinucleate cells)
4. Myofibrils (~1um)
5. Myofilaments

SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SR)

Thin tubules within a muscle cell that open outside the cell

What are the 4 steps of the sliding filament model of muscle contraction?

1. Ca++ released from SR
2. Ca++ binds to troponin
3. Tropomyosin changes orientation, exposing actin active sites
4. Myosin heads attach and swivel

What are the 5 characteristics of red muscle?

1. Aerobic
2. Slow, sustained contraction
3. Densely vascularized
4. High myoglobin and fat content
5. Many mitochondria

What are 2 examples of red muscle?

1. Turkey thigh
2. Trout lateral band

What are the 3 characteristics of white muscle?

1. Anaerobic
2. Rapid, brief contraction
3. Sparsely vascularized

What is an example of white muscle in the minnow?

Myomotal muscle

SARCOMERE

Contraction segment of a myofibril

What happens to a sarcomere in the sliding filament model?

H gets smaller, I-band surrounds the Z-line, and A rests between I-bands

PROPRIOCEPTORS

Sensors that monitor and coordinate muscle fibers

Where are proprioceptors gathered in birds and mammals?

Muscle spindle, Golgi tendon organs

What does the alpha motor neuron do in muscles?

Stimulates extrafusal muscle fibers

What does the gamma motor neuron do in muscles?

Stimulates intrafusal fibers

What are the 2 epimere components associated with muscle?

1. Dermatome (smooth)
2. Myotome (striated)

What are the 6 striated muscle groups?

1. Epaxial
2. Hypaxial
3. Hypobranchial
4. Eye muscles
5. Branchiomeric
6. Appendicular

What changed and what persisted in striated muscles during the transition from crossopterygians to labyrinthodonts?

Striated muscles became less massive, but remained segmented (incl. up to reptiles)

HYPAXIAL

Striated muscle that supports viscera and moves ribs

In fishes the hypaxial muscle is ____ in size, while in tetrapods it is _____ ___ _____.

massive, divided into sheets

What nerve innervates the epaxial muscles?

Spinal

What nerve innervates the hypaxial muscles?

Spinal

What 3 nerves innervate the branchiomeric muscles?

IV, X, VII

What 3 nerves innervate the eye muscles?

III, IV, VI

BRANCHIOMERIC

Striated muscle that operates gill arches, esp. the hyoid and mandibular arches

What is the branchiomeric muscle in the shark?

Cucillaris

What are the 3 branchiomeric muscles in humans?

Trapezius, sternomastoid, cleidomastoid

DORSAL HYOID CONSTRICTOR

Striated muscle that moves the operculum in bony fishes

What 2 muscles in tetrapods arise from the dorsal hyoid constrictor?

Depressor mandibular, sphinctor colli

In mammals the hyoid constrictor becomes the _____, while the hyoid levator becomes the ____.

platysma, stapedius

In mammals the _____ _____ ______ becomes the digastric muscle and the stylohyoid.

ventral hyoid constrictor

Name 1 key facial muscle involved in making each expression.

What are the 3 embryonic tongue cartilages (from tongue-tip to root)?

1. Lateral lingual
2. Tuberculum impar
3. Copula

Visualize the occlusion of these teeth.

BUNODONT

"Rounded peak" tooth; primates, pigs

LOPHODONT

"Ridged cusp" tooth; rhinoceros

SELENODONT

"Crescent cusp" tooth; cow

HYPSODONT

"High crown" tooth; horse

CARNISSIAL

Large flesh-shearing tooth in mammals

FANGS

Recurved teeth

POLYPHYDONT

Animal that continually replaces teeth, ex. shark

DIPHYODONT

Animal with two successive sets of teeth, a "deciduous" set and a "permanent" set, ex. humans

In general, mammal teeth arise in the pattern ____/____ (upper/lower), but in cats the teeth can arise in the pattern ____/____.

3143/3143, 3131/3121

What is another name for the cuspids in humans?

Canines

What is another name for the bicuspids in humans?

Premolars

What are the 3 roles/derivatives of pharynx pouches?

1. Pouch 1 (spiracular): middle ear canal, Eustachian tube
2. Pouches 1-2: thyroid gland
3. Pouhces 2-5: thymus, tonsils, parathyroid

What are the gill derivatives of the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm?

Endoderm: inner surface
Mesoderm: skeleton septum, vessels, muscles
Ectoderm: outer surface, lamellae

How many breaths do humans take in one year?

(4 to 10) X 10^6 breaths/year

PULMONARY ARTERIOLE

Artery carrying deoxygenated blood to the lungs

PULMONARY VENULE

Vein carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs

What is the type of respiration used by amphibians? By amniotes?

Amphibians: force-pump
Amniotes: suction-pump

TRUE/FALSE: Snakes only have one lung, which runs along the right side of their body.

TRUE

What cartilage lifts the ribs when we take a breath (inspire)?

External intercostals

What 2 muscles involved in inspiring can you see when you do a pull-up exercise?

Sternocleidomastoid, scalenus

What cartilage depresses the ribs when we release a breath (expire)?

Internal intercostals

What muscle depresses the ribcage during expiration?

Rectus abdominus

What happens to the diaphragm during expiration?

Diaphragm relaxes

Who wrote about mammalian diaphragm origins as an evolution toward longer bursts of sustained activity? In what year?

John Ruben, 1987

What is the lung capacity of a bird compared to an equal-size mammal?

1/10

How many wingbeats per second does the average bird take?

12-20 wingbeats/sec

In frogs the vocal cords are stretched between and protected by 2 ________ __________.

arytenoid cartilages

What evolved first: swim bladders or lungs?

Lungs

VENTILATION

Breathing

What is retained in mammalian lungs after exhalation?

Tidal air

INSPIRE

Ribs rocked forward (cat) or up (human) with inhalation

What nerve innervates the diaphragm?

Phrenic nerve

GLOTTIS

Opening to the lungs

What are the 2 types of muscle in the larynx?

Extrinsic and intrinsic

STERNOHYOID

Pulls larynx posteriorly

Clavicle-Sternum

Inn. Ansa cervicalis

THYROHYOID

Draws larynx anteriorly

Thyroid cartilage-Hyoid bone

C1

LATERAL CRICEARYTNEOID

Holds vocal cords together

LATERAL CRICOARYTENOID

Holds vocal cords together

Cricoid cartilage-Arytenoid cartilage

C10

POSTERIOR CRICOARYTENOID

Pulls vocal cords apart

Cricoid cartilage-Arytenoid cartilage

C10

CRICOTHYROID

Tenses vocal cords

Cricoid cartilage-Thyroid cartilage

Inn. superior laryngeal

THYROARYTENOID

Relaxes vocal cords

Thyroid cartilage-Arytenoid cartilage

Inn. recurrent laryngeal

What nerve are the superior laryngeal and recurrent laryngeal nerves branches of?

C10, vagus

Name the 2 extrinsic muscles and 4 intrinsic muscles of the larynx.

Extrinsic:

1. Sternohyoid (pulls larynx posteriorly)
2. Thyrohyoid (draws larynx anteriorly)

Intrinsic:

1. Lateral cricoarytenoid (holds vocal cords together)
2. Posterior cricoarytenoid (pulls vocal cords apart)
3. Cricothyroid (tenses vocal cords)
4. Thryoarytenoid (relaxes vocal cords)

TRUE/FALSE: Birds have a larynx.

FALSE

SYRINX

Bird equivalent to the larynx, but placed much lower in the body

What are the 4 processes of digestion?

1. Transportation
2. Physical treatment
3. Chemical treatment
4. Absorption

PERISTALSIS

Rhythmic muscle movement that transports food toward the stomach

Digested large molecules are absorbed by the ____ _______.

small intestine

Digested sugars and amino acids are transported through what tissue pathway?

Capillaries to veins to the liver

Describe the processing of fatty acids and glycerols during digestion.

FAs+Gs cross gut lining and are reconstructed into fat with H2O. The fat enters the lymphatic system, then veins carry it to the liver.

Name the 6 visible elements of the gut.

Name the 4 elements of the gut visible in a cross-section.

ESOPHAGUS

"Carry-eat"; tube connecting the buccal cavity to the stomach, distensible, lined with stratified epithelium, associated with smooth and striated muscle

Fishes: short
Amphibians/Reptiles: cilia transport
Mammals: peristalsis transport

What is a unique characteristic of the esophagus in: fishes, amphibians/reptiles, and mammals?

Fishes: short
Amphibians/Reptiles: transports with cilia
Mammals: transports with peristalsis

PIGEON MILK

Birds: cells sloughed off esophagus used to nourish young

What is a unique function of the esophagus in birds? What bone supports the esophagus in birds?

Temporary storage; furcula (wishbone)

What 2 specialized cells exist in the fundic region of the stomach?

1. Parietal (creates HCl)
2. Chief (creates pepsin, lipase)

Name the 3 regions of the stomach (anterior-to-posterior).

1. Cardiac
2. Fundic
3. Pyloric

What are the 2 specializations of the stomach in birds?

Proventriculus, gizzard

Name the 4 elements of the ruminant stomach.

What 2 groups of animals have gizzards, besides birds?

Dinosaurs, crocodilians

Where does most nutrient absorption take place?

Small intestine

What are the 4 functions of digestive enzymes in the small intestine?

1. Prepare sugars
2. Split starches, fats
3. Activate trypsin
4. Convert proteins to amino acids

What 3 tissues are stimulated by small intestine hormones?

Pancreas, gall bladder, other intestinal glands

Name the 3 regions of the intestines (anterior-to-posterior).

1. Duodenum ("twelve fingers")
2. Jejunum ("empty")
3. Ileum

LOBULE

Segment of the liver

What are the 3 general functions of the liver?

Digestion, metabolism, storage

BILE

Decomposition product of proteins and hemoglobin

What do bile salts help with?

Bile salts help pancreatic enzymes in splitting/absorbing fats

What are fats and proteins converted into by the liver?

Carboyhydrates

Who discovered insulin? In what year?

Bunting and Best, 1921.

Name 2 functions of insulin.

1. Increases plasma membrane permeability in muscles and adipose tissue.
2. Activates enzymes that convert glucose into glycogen and fat.

GLUCAGON

Pancreas product that activates enzymes which convert glycogen to glucose, acting on liver cells when glucose stock is low

What are 2 endocrine products of the dorsal pancreatic lobe?

Insulin, glucagon

What are the products of the ventral pancreatic lobe?

Exocrine "pancreatic juice," 12 enzymes

Each lobule of the liver has a _____ vein.

central

ENDOCRINE

Gland without a duct (hormone enters bloodstream directly)

EXOCRINE

Gland with duct

The dorsal pancreas sits near the spleen, while the ventral pancreas sits near the _______.

duodenum

Who first observed the circulation of blood? In what year?

William Harvey, 1628

Who observed blood circulation in frog lungs? In what year?

Marcello Malpighi, 1661

What direction does stimulation of the heart proceed in (which way does the blood flow)?

Anteriorly

What are the 4 components of the heart? What surrounds them?

1. Sinus venosus
2. Atrium
3. Ventricle
4. Conus arteriosus

These components are surrounded by a muscular, non-compliant pericardium.

PERICARDIUM

Non-compliant muscular sac that surrounds the heart

RIMSDERCENS

Reproductive
Integumentary
Muscular
Skeletal
Digestive
Excretory
Respiratory
Circulatory
Endocrine
Nervous
Sensory

A pacemaker rests in the _________ node, sends signals to the _________ node, which in turn stimulates contraction of the ________.

sinoatrial, atrioventricular, ventricle

In the mammalian heart, what delivers deoxygenated blood to the right atrium?

Cranial and caudal vena cavae

The _____ nerve stimulates the heart, while the _____ nerve slows it down.

cardiac, vagus

Who proposed the heart as an endocrine gland? In what year?

Cantin and Genest, 1986

Name the 5 waves of an electrocardiogram. What 4 events does an electrocardiogram depict?

What group of animals have "single-barreled" hearts with 4 cylinders?

Fishes

Name 12 important structures that arise in the development of an embryonic chick heart over hours 25-30 (top-to-bottom: 3 in stage one, two, 4 in stage three, 2 in stage four).

Name 7 key structures that arise in the development of the embryonic chick heart from hours 30-56.

Name the 5 structures/layers present in these drawings of blood vessels. What type of vessel is each drawing depicting?

Label the 17 notable features observed during the development of the pericardial and pleural cavities in a mammalian embryo.

Mammals have a massive partition in the heart called the ____ _____.

media stinum

BULBUS CORDIS

Lies ventral to the primordial ventricle in a developing heart, first appearing after the heat makes its S-shaped form; comprises part of the mature ventricle

CONUS ARTERIOSUS

Conical pouch in the upper left angle of the right ventricle of the developing heart; gives rise to the pulmonary artery

TRUNCUS ARTERIOSUS

Tube that lies cranial to the bulbus cordis in the developing heart; gives rise to the pulmonary trunk and the ascending aorta

What body cavity contains the heart?

Pleuropericardial?

What body cavity contains the stomach?

Peritoneal

What separates the pleuropericardial and the peritoneal cavities?

Transverse septum

What are the 2 components of the mammal pericardium?

Parietal pericardium, parietal pleura

Is blood a tissue?

Yes

BLOOD

Tissue consisting of cells in a fluid matrix

What are the 3 types of blood cells?

Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets/thrombocytes

PLASMA

Blood fluid without cells

SERUM

Blood fluid without clotting proteins

What are 2 embryonic blood-forming tissues?

Yolk sac, chorion

What are 5 tissues that form blood at some point during development (besides the yolk sac and chorion)?

1. Liver
2. Intestine
3. Kidney
4. Spleen
5. Thymus

What 3 structures/networks form blood in adults?

Red bone marrow, spleen and lymphatic system

Where does blood form in a vertebra?

Centrum

Where does blood form in a rib?

Center of the bone

Where does blood form in a femur?

Ends of the bone

ERYTHROCYTE

Red blood cell

What are the 2 types of white blood cells?

1. Granulocyte (bacteriophagus)
2. Monocyte (phagocytic)

Embryonic blood vessels form near ____ __ ______ _____ (such as the ____ ____ and the ____).

centers of metabolic activity, yolk sac, liver

TRUE/FALSE: Blood vessel networks are simpler in adults than in embryos.

TRUE

Circulatory patterns in embryos reflect their _____, but ________ ______ _________.

heritage, accomodate special requirements

What are 3 key events in human circulatory development that happen at birth?

1. Placental circulation stops
2. First breath: ductus arteriosus closes (becomes ligamentum arteriosum)
3. Foramen ovale closes

Fishes have ____-loop circulation and reptiles have ___-loop circulation.

single, double

ATRIOVENTRICULAR PLUG

Raised cushion in the ventricle of a lungfish heart

TRABECULAE

Separate deoxygenated/oxygenated blood in the undivided frog ventricle

PULMOCUTANEOUS ARTERY

Retrieves oxygenated blood from the lungs and skin in amphibians

Stem reptiles and amphibians have the same _____ of vessels leaving the heart.

pattern

Tetrapods other than stem reptiles and amphibians have ____ ___ ____ artery leaving the heart.

more than one

What are the 3 vessels that leave the heart in reptiles?

1. Right systemic, large (body, forelimbs, carotids)
2. Left systemic, small (body)
3. Pulmonary trunk

FORAMEN OF PANIZZA

Crocodiles: connects left/right aortic arches to enable the reversal of blood flow when diving

AORTIC ARCH

The bend between the ascending and descending portions of the aorta

PARIETAL ARTERY

Artery supplying blood to the head

ILIAC ARTERY

Artery carrying blood to the pelvis and lower limb

VENAE CAVAE

Veins that return deoxygenated from the body to the heart

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Recirculates fluid from tissues back into the cardiovascular system

LYMPH HEART

Striated muscle used by some animals to move lymph

In the lymphatic system, high pressure in ______ promotes ____ ____, while low pressure in _______ promotes ____ ____.

arteries, fluid loss, veins, fluid return

In fishes and birds, lymphatic system vessels terminate near the ____, centrally along the ___ ___ or ___ ___ ___, and posteriorly along the ____ ____ ____.

heart, post cardinal, post vena cava, pelvic region veins

In birds and mammals, what 5 structures do not tend to carry lymphatic vessels?

1. central nervous system
2. liver
3. cartilage
4. teeth
5. bone

In birds and mammals, lymphatic vessels are especially prevalent in the gut because of...

Capillary pressure, molecular size

CHYLE

Fatty lymph formed in small intestine

LACTEALS

Lymph vessels along mesentaries containing chyle

CYSTERNA CHYLI

Dilated sac at the end of the thoracic duct

HEMOPOIETIC

Blood-forming

What are the 2 types of hemopoietic tissues?

Myloid, lymphoid

What are the 4 types of T-cells?

1. Killer (attach to invaders)
2. Helper (boost antibody production)
3. Suppressor (reduce killer secretions)
4. Memory (recognize/remember invaders)

What are the 3 layers of blood vessels (outside-to-inside)?

1. T. externa (adventitia/loose connective tissue)
2. T. media (longitudinal muscle, circular muscle)
3. T. interna (epithelial cells, fibrous sheets, elastic membrane)

MAXILLARY RETE MIRABILE

Network of external skull arteries surrounding the optic canal

CAROTID RETE MIRABILE

Network of intercranial arteries arising from the carotid artery

How many capillaries do humans have? What is their diameter?

1.2 million, 0.008 mm in diameter

What are the 2 types of blood pressure?

1. Hydrostatic (ventricular contraction, vessel-to-tissue)
2. Osmotic (unequal protein concentration, tissue-to-vessel)

What do surface veins do to conserve and dissipate heat?

Constrict and dilate, respectively

What are 2 ways whales use blood flow to control their buoyancy?

1. Shallow/low density water whale blushes to heat spermaceti oil in melon, increasing buoyancy
2. Whale more than 600m deep cools blood by expelling heat from nostril, decreasing buoyancy

ANASTOMOSES

Network that connects (shunts) arteries, veins, other vessels

MIRABILE

Network of anastomoses (vessel connections)

What are 4 locations of excretion?

Gills/lungs, sweat gland, rectal gland (shark), salt gland (sea birds/reptiles)

What is the purpose of excretion?

To regulate salt/water concentrations in the body

Name 5 key structures in the developing tripartite kidney. What are the 3 regions of the kidney called?

ARCHINEPHROS

Ancestral vertebrate kidney; retained by vertebrate embryos and larval hagfish

PRONEPHROS

First kidney form to develop in vertebrate embryos; paired organ; retained by lamprey and hagfish

OPISTHONEPHROS

Adult kidney in amphibians and fishes

MESONEPHROS

Temporary kidney of reptiles, birds, mammals; Wolffian duct + mesonephric tubules

METANEPHROS

Adult kidney primordium for birds, reptiles and mammals; complex network of secreting and collecting ducts

NEPHROTOME

Mesoderm that gives rise to the pronephros

NEPHRIC RIDGE

First instance of the kidney; protrudes from the dorsal cavity wall

Describe the 3 generations of amniotic kidney tubules in reptiles/birds and mammals.

1. Pronephros

R/B: similar to fishes M: rudimentary tubules-- solid cord grows to cloaca and hollows to form duct

2. Mesonephros

R/B: well-developed in embryo M: highly variable (pigs = huge, primates+rats = hemochorial/non-functional)

3. Metanephros

R/B: N/A M: arises from archinephric duct as diverticulum near cloaca

PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE

Resorps glucose, amino acids, and salts in kidney

DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE

Adjusts pH, secretes NH3, H+, K+ and creatine (kidney)

The structure of the nephron is common to all _______.

vertebrates

What 3 functions are reflected in the structure of the nephron?

Filtration, resorption, secretion

What are 2 other names for the archinephric duct?

Wolffian duct, mesonephric duct

In aminote females the _____ ___ generally persists to carry urine.

archinephric duct

How does the oviduct form in sharks?

Splitting of archinephric duct

How does the oviduct form in most teleosts?

Folding

MULLERIAN DUCT

Oviduct

How does the oviduct form in amniotes?

Arises from kidney peritoneum

When is the archinephric duct of an amniote female reduced to tiny remnants?

As the uretur forms

D^3

Sex organ development terms:

1. Determination (destined)
2. Development (elaboration + movement of tissues)
3. Differentiation (gonads,ducts,from indistinct form to sexual form)

PITUITARY GLAND

Produces sexual development hormones

What are 3 products of the adenhypophysis?

1. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
2. Leutenizing hormone (LH)
3. Steroids (sex hormones)

What 3 structures produce estrogens?

Ovary, testes, adrenal cortex

If testosterone is introduced during development, what happens to the Mullerian and Wolffian ducts?

Mullerian disappears, Wolffian stays

If testosterone is not introduced during development, what happens to the Mullerian and Wolffian ducts?

Mullerian stays, Wolffian disappears

What are 4 reactions to female development that occur in the sex cords?

1. Primary cords degenerate
2. Secondary cords develope
3. Meiosis at secondary cords produces eggs
4. Follicle cells/connective tissue surround eggs

What are the 4 forms of the uterus?

1. Duplex (2 distinct uteri)
2. Bipartite (some division, occurs in carnivores)
3. Bicornuate (no division, but uterus has "horns," occurs in primates)
4. Simplex (complete merger with no horns, occurs in humans)

What are 3 structures that contribute fluid to semen composition?

1. Seminal vesicle (60% of total, thick, contains fructose, increases sperm viability)
2. Prostate gland (

E^3

Sexual intercourse terms:

1. Erection (touch receptors + parasympathetic impulses from sacral region -- dilate + stimulate release of lubricant)
2. Emission (sympathetic impulses from lumbar vertebrae 1-2 -- peristalsis of testis ducts, epididymis and vas deferens)
3. Ejaculation

What are 3 functions of the cloaca?

Defecation, urination, copulation

What 2 organs are intromittant with the cloaca?

Claspers (sharks), gonopodium (teleosts)

What 4 organs are accessories to the cloaca?

1. Corpus cavernosum
2. Glans penis
3. Ductus deferens
4. Bladder

Name the 6 regions of a reptile cloaca.

What is the Latin word for "sewer?"

cloaca

YOLK

Substance composed of proteins, fats and phosphates important to the growth of embryos; synthesized by the liver

ISOLECITHAL

Small, holoblastic egg with uniform yolk distribution

TELOLECITHAL

Medium-sized holoblastic egg with unequal yolk distribution

MICROLECITHAL

Extremely small egg relative to body size (human, mouse, deer, amphioxus)

How big is a mouse egg?

150 micrometers

MESOLECITHAL

Medium-size egg heavily concentrated on the end with the "animal pole" (lamprey, lungfish, frogs)

MACROLECITHAL

Egg with a large yolk (turtle, dinosaur, chicken)

What is one presumed reason behind why birds have a vestigial right ovary?

Flight constraint

What are some characteristics of amphioxus reproduction?

Separate sexes, microlecithal eggs released from atrium, external fertilization, development within egg case

Visualize the development of an amphioxus (esp. planes of division) from 0.5 hours to 2.5 hours.

Name the 5 germinal layers and visualize their movement over the development period between 6 hours and 13 hours.

INVOLUTION

Flowing in/over internal surface (as in germinal layer development)

EPIBOLY

Flowing over external surface (as in germinal layer development)

CONVERGENCE

Movement toward midline (as in germinal layer development)

INVAGINATION

Pushing in (as in germinal layer development)

In a neurala somites develop from ____ to ____.

front, rear

ARCHENTERON

Primordium of the gut; forms from the gastrocoel

How does a chick begin developing over the yolk?

Cytoplasm with a cleavage furrow forms a blastodisc. The blastodisc spreads over the surface of the yolk (epiboly) then rises up, remaining attached at either end via fibrous periblasts.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

Angle at which a bird wing attaches to the body

MAGNUS EFFECT

When an object is thrown over an air flow moving in the opposite direction, its speed is closest near (but not in) the air flow

As velocity increases, induced drag ____ and parasite drag ____.

decreases, increases

1 knot = ? km/hr

1 knot = 1.852 km/hr

GLIDE POLAR

Sinking speed required to achieve a particular horizontal speed

GLIDE POLAR (equation)

Z = (C[drag]/C[lift]) X horizontal speed

WING LOADING (equation)

mass/wing area

Goose wing load is _x duck wing load.

Velocity as Determined by Wing Loading (equation)

square root (mass/wing area)

ALLOMETRY

Study of shape and size

SURFACE AREA (equation)

4*pie*r^2

VOLUME (equation)

4/3*pie*r^2

Does pterosaur wing loading scale with size?

No.

Does bird wing loading scale with size?

Yes.

What are the characteristics that contribute to the paleontological definition of a mammal?

Jaw, ossicles (3), pelvis, growth, homeothermic, hair, live birth

When did mammals first appear?

Upper Triassic

HADROCODIUM WUI

Early mammal (195mya/Early Jurassic)

CASTOROCAUDA LUTRASIMILIS

Early mammal (164mya)

EOMAIA SCANSORIA

"Dawn mother who climbs"; early mammal with wrist shape ideal for arboreal life, 10cm (125mya)

KRYORYCTES CADBURY

Early mammal, size of large cat, toothless, covered in quills (106mya)

PTILODUS MONTANUS

Early mammal, once widespread/relict (54-66mya)

Name 5 notable early mammals (early-to-late).

1. Hadrocodium wui (195 mya)
2. Castorocauda lutrasimilis (164)
3. Eomaia scansoria (125)
4. Kryoryctes cadburyi (106)
5. Ptilodus montanus (54-66)

PROTOTHERIA

Subclass containing order Monotremata (platypus, spiny anteaters)

MONOTREMATA

Platypus and spiny anteaters

ORNITHORHYNCHUS

Platypus

TACHYGLOSSUS

Spiny anteaters

HOLOTHERIA

Subclass containing order Marsupialia (kangaroo) and Infraclass Eutheria (humans)

MARSUPIALIA

kangaroo

EUTHERIA

humans (infraclass)

Where did placentals originate and migrate to?

Europe to Africa/North America

Where did marsupials originate and migrate to?

North America to South America to Antarctica to Australia, and North America to Europe/North Africa

Name the 3 germinal layers visible in a whole mount of a 13-hour chordate.

What did early tetrapods have that suggests they were still tied to an aquatic lifestyle?

Lateral line

Urogenital Homology - Gonad: INDIFFERENT: secondary cords FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology - Gonad:

INDIFFERENT: secondary cords
FEMALE: ovarian follicles
MALE: degenerates

Urogenital Homology - Gonad: INDIFFERENT: primary cords FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology - Gonad:

INDIFFERENT: primary cords
FEMALE: degenerates
MALE: seminiferous/rete tubules

Urogenital Homology - Gonad: INDIFFERENT: primordial germ cells FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology - Gonad:

INDIFFERENT: primordial germ cells
FEMALE: ova
MALE: spermatozoa

Urogenital Homology - Mesonephric Tubules: INDIFFERENT: anterior group FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology - Mesonephric Tubules:

INDIFFERENT: anterior group
FEMALE: degenerate to rudiments
MALE: vasa efferentia

Urogenital Homology - Mesonephric Tubules: INDIFFERENT: posterior group FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology - Mesonephric Tubules:

INDIFFERENT: posterior group
FEMALE: degenerate to rudiments
MALE: degenerate to rudiments

Urogenital Homology: INDIFFERENT: Wolffian duct FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology:

INDIFFERENT: Wolffian duct
FEMALE: degenerates
MALE: vas deferens

Urogenital Homology - Urogenital Sinus: INDIFFERENT: vesicourethral division FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology - Urogenital Sinus:

INDIFFERENT: vesicourethral division
FEMALE: bladder, urethra
MALE: bladder, upper urethra

Urogenital Homology - Urogenital Sinus: INDIFFERENT: definitive division FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology - Urogenital Sinus:

INDIFFERENT: definitive division
FEMALE: vestibule
MALE: lower urethra

Urogenital Homology: INDIFFERENT: genital tubercle FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology:

INDIFFERENT: genital tubercle
FEMALE: clitoris
MALE: penis

Urogenital Homology: INDIFFERENT: urethral folds FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology:

INDIFFERENT: urethral folds
FEMALE: labia minora
MALE: penis

Urogenital Homology: INDIFFERENT: labioscrotal folds FEMALE: MALE:

Urogenital Homology:

INDIFFERENT: labioscrotal folds
FEMALE: labia majora
MALE: scrotum

What is the fate of the primary sex cords in a male?

Primary sex cords become medial testes

RETE TESTIS

Tube that conducts sperm from testes; formed from kidney tubules

TUNICA ALBUGINEA

Protective tissue that surrounds testes

VAGINAL VESTIBULE

Equivalent to the embryonic urogenital sinus

FALLOPIAN TUBE

Oviduct

ROUND LIGAMENT

Suspends uterus; homolog to gubernaculum in the male

GUBERNACULUM

Suspends testes; homolog to the round ligament in the female

What 3 urogenital structures are NOT formed from mesodermal tissue?

Urogenital sinus, bladder and cloaca

LINGUAL HERNIA

Tear in the weak lining between the visceral cavity and the scrotum

SEMINALPLASMIN

Component of ejaculate containing antibiotics, clotting enzymes and prostaglandins

VENT

Caudal cloaca opening (opening to environment)

Where do ganglia and sensory nerves arise from?

Neural crest

Where do motor cells arise from?

Spinal cord

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Spinal and cranial nerves

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Visceral motor components of the peripheral nervous system

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain and spinal cord

Inside the central nervous system, a bundle of axons is called a ____ and a group of nerve cell bodies is called a ____.

tract, nucleus

SPONGIOBLAST

Gives rise to neuroglia and ependymal cells

NEUROBLAST

Gives rise to neurons

In what 3 ways are neurons classified?

1. # of processes
2. Pattern of dendrites
3. Function

Name 14 developments that occur during the embryonic growth of a male.

Name 12 developments that occur during the embryonic growth of a female.

Visualize the differentiation of the indifferent mammal cloaca into the male sexual form. What structures are involved?

Visualize the differentiation of the indifferent mammal cloaca into the female sexual form. What structures are involved?

Where do ganglia arise from?

Neural crest

Where do sensory nerves arise from?

Neural crest

Outside the CNS, what is a bundle of axons called?

Nerve

Outside the CNS, what is a group of nerve cell bodies called?

Ganglion

Inside the CNS, what is a bundle of axons called?

Tract

Inside the CNS, what is a group of nerve cell bodies called?

Nucleus

WHITE MATTER

Tract; bundle of axons in the CNS

GRAY MATTER

Nucleus; group of nerve cell bodies in the CNS

SPONGIOBLASTS

Primordial nerve cells that give rise to neuroglia and ependymal cells

NEUROBLASTS

Primordial nerve cells that give rise to neurons

What are the 3 characteristics by which neurons are classified?

1. Number of processes
2. Pattern of dendrites
3. Function

Name the 5 primary senses, and 4 other senses that occur in animals.

PRIMARY: sight, sound, hearing, touch, taste

SECONDARY: infrared, lateral line, electric, magnetic

Parasympathetic impulses tend to ______ muscle action.

slow down

Sympathetic impulses tend to ______ muscle action.

accelerate

What are 3 shapes (based on process number) that nerve cells can take? What is 1 dendritic pattern used for classification? What are 2 function types for nerve cells?

SHAPES: bipolar, unipolar, multipolar

PATTERN: idiodendritic

FUNCTION: sensory, motor

Sensory nerves are ______, while motor nerves are ________.

afferent, efferent

TRUE/FALSE: Some neurons can have projections that extend 1+ meters.

True

SYNAPSE

Neurotransmitter released from synaptic vesicles

Synapses were theorized by ____ in ____, and confirmed to exist in ____.

Sherrington, 1890, 1954

NEUROGLIA

Support/Nourish/Insulate nerve cells

What are the 5 types of neuroglia?

1. Ependymal
2. Astrocyte
3. Microglial
4. Oligodendroglia
5. Schwann cells

EPNDYMAL

Neuroglial cell in spinal lumen, uses cilia to propel cerebral spinal fluid; arises from neural tube

ASTROCYTE

Regulates ion balance and nutrition; arises from neural tube

MICROGLIAL

Neuroglial brain macrophages, phagocytic; arises from mesoderm

OLIGODENDROGLIA

Myelinate neuroglial cells within CNS that form a fatty protective shield; arises from neural tube

SCHWANN CELLS

Myelinate neuroglia outside CNS, surround axons and form nodes of Ranvier; arises from neural tube and neural crest

NODES OF RANVIER

Accelerate ATP conduction

SS

Somatic Sensory

VS

Visceral Sensory

VM

Visceral Motor

SM

Somatic Motor

From the cranial to caudal ends of the spinal cord, what is the general organization of nerves?

1. Somatic sensory
2. Visceral sensory
3. Visceral motor
4. Somatic motor

SPINAL NERVE

Ancestral nerve (modern lampreys also carry it) with separate dorsal and ventral roots

In spinal nerves, the dorsal root carries ___, ___ and __ nerves, while the ventral root carries ___ __ _____. The dorsal and ventral roots arise _____ ____ ____.

Dorsal: SS, VS, VM

Ventral: SM to myotomes

alternately along CNS (dorsal trails ventral)

What are two characteristics that differentiate a modern spinal nerve from an ancestral one?

1. Dorsal and ventral roots join together
2. Sympathetic chain of ganglia parallel spinal cord

What does the dorsal root carry in fishes/amphibians? In amniotes?

Fishes/Amphibians: SS, VS, VM

Amniotes: SS, VS

What does the ventral root carry in fishes/amphibians? In amniotes?

Fishes/Amphibians: VM, SM

Amniotes: VM, SM

BRACHIAL PLEXUS

Nerves C5-T1; innervates upper limb

LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS

Innervates lower limb

Visceral motor fibers are part of the _____ nervous system.

autonomic

Thoracolumbar nerves generate _____ impulses.

sympathetic

Craniosacral nerves generate ____ impulses.

parasympathetic

ENTERIC AUTONOMIC SYSTEM

Other spinal/cranial nerves modify its effects

What are the 11th and 12th cranial nerves? What special characteristic do they have?

Spinal accessory, hypoglossal; only occur in amniotes

What are the 3 groups of cranial nerves?

Ventral root, head sensory, dorsal root

What cranial nerves compose the ventral root?

oculomotor (3)
trochlear (4)
abducens (6)
hypoglossal (12) [amniotes only]

What cranial nerves compose the head sensory nerves?

olfactory (1)
optic (2)
acoustic (8)

What cranial nerves compose the dorsal root?

trigeminal (5)
facial (7)
glossopharyngeal (9)
vagus (10)
spinal accessory (11) [amniotes only]

What is the special sensory (SS) nerve in the head sensory nerve group?

Nervus terminalis

TERMINAL NERVE

Nervus terminalis

NERVUS TERMINALIS

Terminal nerve; arises from olfactory/neurogenic placode; provides olfaction and vision impulses; does not occur in birds

1878 shark
1894 lungfish
1913 rabbit/human

Who first described the cranial nerves? In what year?

Galen, 129-210 CE

CRIBIFORM PLATE

Extension of the ethmoid bone that supports the olfactory bulb, perforated to allow passage of olfactory nerves

VOMERONASAL NERVE

Embryonic nerve that disappears from the human fetus before birth, passes through the cribiform plate

JACOBSEN ORGAN

Vomeronasal organ discovered in 1813, auxiliary olfactory organ in many animals; arises from the nasal placode

OPTIC NERVE

CN2, sensory tract of the brain; arises from the prosencephalon

INDUCTION

Interaction of 2 tissues (as in the optic vesicle and optic placode)

What is the result of induction of the optic vesicle and optic placode?

Differentiation of the lens and a 2x layered optic cup

ACOUSTIC NERVE

CN8, auditory, octaval nerve

What are the 2 components of the acoustic nerve? What structures are associated with them?

Vestibular and cochlear nerves, with ganglia derived from neurogenic placodes

TRIGEMINAL NERVE

CN5, innervates the jaw region with 3 branches

What 3 muscles are innervated by the visceral motor component of the trigeminal nerve?

Masster, temporalis and pterygoids

FACIAL NERVE

CN7, loops around shark spiracle and is associated with the hyoid arch, has geniculate (bent) ganglion and SS, VS and VM components

What are the 3 nerve types associated with the facial nerve?

1. SS (pinna)
2. VS (taste buds)
3. VM (facial/digastric/stapedius/salivary/lacrimal)

GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NERVE

CN9, forks around 1st gill slit, has petrosal (rock-like) ganglion and VS and VM components

What 2 nerve types are associated with the glossopharyngeal nerve?

1. VS (taste buds/pharynx lining)
2. VM (throat/larynx/salivary)

VAGUS NERVE

CN10, branchial nerves that unite beyond CN9 (glossopharyngeal), has SS, VS, and VS/VM components

What 4 nerve types are associated with the vagus nerve?

1. SS - jugular ganglion (skin)
2. VS - Nodose ganglion (taste buds/soft palate)
3. VS/VM (pharynx/larynx/heart/lungs/gut)

SPINAL ACCESSORY NERVE

CN11, visceral motor fibers of CN10 (vagus), innervates trapezius, sternomastoid and cleidomastoid

What 3 muscles are innervated by the spinal accessory nerve?

Trapezius, sternomastoid and cleidomastoid

HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE

CN12, ventral nerve group that innervates the tongue (SM)

What SM nerve innervates the tongue? What VS nerves innervate the tongue?

SM: 12
VS: 5, 7 and 9

Spinal reflexes provide _____/____ responses (_____ neurons in gray matter are important).

somatic/visceral, association

What is an example of a spinal reflex?

Tapping the knee causes it to jerk

ASCENDING

Signals moving toward brain

DESCENDING

Signals moving away from brain

What are the 4 components of the trigeminal nerve?

How is the grey matter of this thoracic vertebra (cross-section) organized? What are the 5 visible nerve components outside the grey matter?

LATERAL FUNICULUS

"Little column," most lateral bundle of the dorsal nerve root

What 2 blood vessels supply the brain?

Internal cartoid artery and vertebral artery

How many synapses do humans have?

700 trillion (7 x 10^4)

The human brain occupies __% of our body mass, and consumes __% of our O2 intake.

2%, 20%

CIRCLE OF WILLIS

Circle of arteries that supply blood to the brain

What man changed personalities after having a railroad spike driven through his head?

Phineas P. Gage

When were skull fractures first written about?

17th century BCE

Who received the Nobel prize for inventing a method of staining nerve cells? In what year?

Camillo Golgi and Santiago Cajal, 1906

2,3,5

Pattern of brain development (2 segments, then 3, then 5)

Name the segments that arise in the 2,3,5 pattern of brain development. What vesicle arises?

BRAINSTEM

Mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon (no cerebellum or colliculi)

VENTRICULAR SYSTEM

Set of structures containing the cerebrospinal fluid in the brain, continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord

What are the 4 ventricles of the ventricular system?

1. Left lateral (telencephalon)
2. Right lateral (telencephalon)
3. Third (diencephalon)
4. Fourth (medulla oblongata)

What are the 4 foramina connecting the ventricular system?

1. Foramen of Monroe (lateral-third)
2. Aquaduct of Sylvius (third-fourth)
3. Median aperture (fourth-subarachnoid)
4. Lateral aperture (fourth-cistern of cerebral vein)

What is characteristic of CNS-surrounding meninges in fishes?

Single membrane

What is characteristic of CNS-surrounding meninges in amphibians/reptiles/birds?

Dura mater (tough mother) and secondary meninx

What is characteristic of CNS-surrounding meninges in mammals?

"Pad" pia, arachnoid and dura mater

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

Fluid produced by choroid plexuses, has nutritional and blood/brain barrier functions

In general what 4 structures does cerebrospinal fluid flow through?

1. Choroid plexuses
2. Pore in 4th ventricle
3. Subarachnoid spaces
4. Arteries

MYLENCEPHALON

B1; most posterior segment of the brain containing most of the medulla oblongata and the anterior of the 1st spinal nerve

What cranial nerves emerge from the mylencephalon (B1)?

CN6 and onward

What lies on the roof of the mylencephalon (B1)?

Choroid plexus

What is special about the catfish mylencephalon (B1)?

Conspicuous facial/vagal lobes

What is special about the rayfin/urodele myencephalon (B1)?

Giant cells of Mauthner (escape response)

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

"Switchboard" for signals to/from head, pharynx and viscera, contains nuclei associated with hearing, respiratory rhythm, salivary glands and taste

METENCEPHALON

B2; anterior portion of the medulla oblongata and dorsal cerebellum

What lies ventral to the medulla oblongata? What cranial nerve emerges there?

Pons, trigeminal (CN5)

The circuits of the _____ pass through the metencephalon.

cerebellum

CEREBELLUM

Integrates balance, proprioceptive input, positional equilibrium and motor memory

What do mammals have that allows them to control distal appendage muscles?

Cerebellar hemispheres

MESENCEPHALON

B3; roof above the cerebral aqueduct, optic lobes and the 4 eminences of the corpora quadrigemina

TECTUM

Roof above the cerebral aqueduct that receives sensory data from olfactory organs (via diencephalon) and acousticolateral organs (via cerebellum), sends signals to appropriate motor columns

What two components of the brain send olfactory and acousticolateral data to the tectum?

Diencephalon and cerebellum, respectively

CORPORA QUADRIGEMINA

Four eminences in the mammal mesencephalon

CEREBRAL PEDUNCLES

Ventral structures of the corpora quadrigemina that relay signals between the cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata

What 2 structures are located in the dorsal corpora quadrigemina?

1. Superior colliculi (vision reflex, ex. look at distant light)
2. Inferior colliculi (hearing reflex, ex. duck when twig cracks)

DIENCEPHALON

B4; major relay center containing the parietal/pineal bodies, optic paraphysis and thalamus "couch"

THALAMUS

Contributor to the limbic system and papes circuit

The reticular formation projects into the cerebrum through the _____.

thalamus

TELENCEPHALON

B5; most anterior segment of the brain, olfactory center

CORPUS CALLOSUM

Structure that coordinates the two hemispheres of the brain, larger in females

NEOPALLIUM

Outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres

PALLIUM

"Cloak"; evolutionary precedent of the cerebrum

ARCHIPALLIUM

Oldest region of the evolutionary precedent to the cerebrum

PALEOPALLIUM

Region within the telencephalon first appearing in amphibians, corresponds with human olfactory cortices

CORPUS STRIATUM

Pair of nucleate masses which form the basal ganglia in the telencephalon

Vertebrates have always had a ____ pallium and ____ subpallium.

dorsal, ventral

SUBPALLIUM

Basal nuclei, corpus striatum

HIPPOCAMPUS

Medial pallium, archipallium

SOMATOSENSORY IMPULSE

Cutaneous impulse (tacticle, thermal, pain)

SPINOTHALMIC TRACT

Sensory pathway in the spinal cord that transmits somatosensory impulses to the thalamus

Name the 4 components of the telencephalon visible in cross-section.

Visualize the flow of cerebrospinal fluid through the brain.

Identify 4 cerebral meninges. What 3 layers lie above the meninges?

Name the 7 structures that arise and change in amniote cerebellar evolution.

TENTORUM

Extension of the dura mater that separates the cerebellum from the occipital lobes

DENDRITE

Branched neuron projection that conducts electrochemical stimuli

AXON

Nerve cell projection that conducts electrochemical stimuli away from the nerve cell body

MYELIN

Electricity-insulating material that forms a sheath around nerve cell axons

FORAMEN OVALE

Fetal opening between the atria of the heart that allows blood to bypass nonfunctional lungs, becomes fossa ovalis after first breath

DUCTUS VENOSUS

Embryonic circulatory structure that allows blood to bypass the liver, becomes ligamentum venosum at birth

View heart circulation: http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/human_heart.html

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Deck Info

Number of cards 621

Created By mssyracuse