Chapter 6-conditioning and learning
Terms
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- learning
- any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience
- associative learning
- the formation of simple associations btween various stimuli and responses
- cognitive learning
- higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation
- reinforcement
- any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur
- antecedents
- events that precede a response
- consequences
- effects that follow a response
- reflex
- an innate, automatic response to a stimulus. example:an eye blink
- classical conditioning
- a form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli
- operant conditioning
- learning based on the consequences of responding
- unconditioned stimulus
- a stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response
- unconditioned response
- an innate reflex response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
- neutral stimulus
- a stimulus that does not evoke a response
- conditioned stimulus
- a stimulus that evokes a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus
- conditioned response
- a learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
- acquisition
- the period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced
- respondent reinforcement
- reinforcement that occurs when an unconditioned stimulus closely follows a conditioned stimulus
- higher order conditioning
- classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning
- informational view
- perspective that explains learning in terms of information imparted by events in the environment
- expectancy
- an anticipation concerning future events or relationships
- extinction
- the weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement
- spontaneous recovery
- the reappearance of learned response after its apparent extinction
- stimulus generalization
- the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to but not identical to a conditioned stimulus
- conditioned emotional response
- an emotional response that has been linked to a previously non-emotional stimulus by classical conditioning.
- desensitization
- reducing fear or anxiety by repeatedly exposing a person to emotional stimuli while the person is deeply relaxed.
- vicarious classical conditioning
- classical conditioning brought about by observing another person react to a particular stimulus
- operant conditioning
- learning based on the consequences of responding
- law of effect
- responses that lead to desirable effects are repeated. those that produce undesirable results are not
- operant reinforcer
- any event that reliably increases the probability or frequency of responses it follows
- operant conditioning chamber
- an apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals; a skinner box
- superstitious behavior
- a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary
- response chaining
- the assembly of separate responses into a series of actions that lead to reinforcement
- shaping
- gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern
- operant extinction
- the weakening of disappearance of a non-reinforced operant response
- positive reinforcement
- occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event
- negative reinforcement
- occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event
- punishment
- any event that follows a response and decreases the likelihood of occurring again
- aversaive consequences
- a stimulus that is painful or uncomfortable
- response cost
- removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made
- primary reinforcers
- nonlearned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological needs
- secondary reinforcer
- a learned reinforcer; often one that gains reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer
- token reinforcer
- a tangible secondary reinforcer such as money, gold, stars, poker chips, and the like
- social reinforcer
- reinforcement based on receiving attention, approval, or affection from another person
- feedback
- information returned to a person about the effects a response has had; also known as knowledge of results
- knowledge of results
- informational feedback
- programmed instruction
- any learning format that presents information in small amounts, gives immediate practice, and provides continuous feedback to learners
- continuous reinforcement
- a schedule in which every correct response is followed by a reinforcer.
- partial reinforcement
- a pattern in which only a portion of all responses
- partial reinforcement effect
- responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction
- schedule of reinforcement
- a rule or plan for determining which responses will be reinforced
- fixed ratio schedule
- a set number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer.
- variable ratio schedule
- a varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. for example a reinforcer is given after three to seven correct responses the actual number changes randomly
- fixed interval schedule
- a reinforcer is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.
- variable interval schedule
- a reinforcer is given the first correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. responses made during the time interval are not reinforced
- stimulus control
- stimuli present when an operant response is acquired tend to control WHEN AND WHERE THE RESPONSE IS MADE
- operant stimulus generalization
- the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded operant reinforcement
- operant stimulus discrimination
- the tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated with non-reward are present
- discriminative stimuli
- stimuli that precede rewarded and nonrewarded responses in operant conditioning
- punishment
- the processes of suppressing a response
- punisher
- any events that decreases the probability or frequency of responses it follows
- escape learning
- learning to make a response in order to end an aversive stimulus
- avoidance learning
- learning to make a response in order to postpone or prevent discomfort
- cognitive learning
- higher level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation
- cognitive map
- internal images or other mental representations of an area that underlie an ability to choose alternative paths to the same goal
- latent learning
- learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided
- rote learning
- learning that takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization or by learning rules
- discovery learning
- learning based on insight and understanding
- observational learning
- learning achieved by watching and imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those actions
- model
- a person who serves as an example in observational learning