Human Factors Psychology - Test 2
Terms
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- episodic memory
- personal knowledge or memory of a specific event (flashbulb)
- redundancy gain
- presenting a signal in more than one way increases the likelihood it will be interpreted correctly
- discriminability
- similar appearing signals are likely to be confused
- feature analysis
- recognizing and evaluating pattern features
- top-down processing
- (conceptually driven) object recognition affected by surrounding context
- descriptive decision models
- assume humans do not act rationally in decision making
- cue primacy
- the first few cues are given greater importance (first impression)
- framing effects
- the way a problem is phrased affects the decision
- expert systems
- computer programs that use experts knowledge of concepts, principles, and rules
- route knowledge
- (egocentric) route list of commands of how to get from point A to point B
- divided attention
- allows us to perform multiple tasks at once
- overconfidence
- individuals belief that they are correct more often than they actually are
- anchoring heuristic
- once an initial decision is made, later cues are often ignored
- prospective memory
- memory of what one is supposed to do
- central executive
- attentional control system that coordinates info from other two subsystems
- time sharing
- switching between cognitive tasks
- augmented display
- display that improves upon reality by superimposing info over actual environment
- cautions
- moderately critical - may be signaled by less salient auditory alerts
- focused attention
- allows us to filter out unwanted information
- subliminal perception
- perception below the threshold of awareness
- advisories
- least critical - may be signaled with peripheral cue (visually)
- intuitive decision making
- quick and relatively automatic responses to a problem
- decision support systems
- any interactive system that allows you to input problem information which it uses to formulate a solution based on complex algorithms
- normative decision models
- assumes individuals act rationally in trying to find the best solution to optimize outcome
- controlled processing
- effortful cognitive processes requiring attention to initiate and sustain (processing unfamiliar info)
- semantic networks
- information is stored in a network of associations
- naturalist decision making
- research into the way people use their experience t make decisions in field settings
- ecological interface design
- displays that closely correspond to the environment (direct perception)
- working memory
- temporary (approx 30-90 seconds) and limited capacity (7 +- 2 chunks) of verbal and spatial information that is currently being used
- priming effect
- people can identity a stimulus faster the second time they see it, even they weren't consciously aware they saw it the first time
- absolute judgement limits
- avoid making the operator judge the represented variable level on the basis of a single sensory dimension (color, size, pitch, etc)
- warnings
- most critical - signaled by salient auditory omnidirectional alerts
- cue salience
- cues that are easily notices are most likely to be used
- perceptual recognition
- comparing incoming stimulus information with stored knowledge in order to categorize the information
- sensory register
- information must first be picked up by the senses before it can be processed (e.g., visual, auditory, touch, taste, smell); information is maintained here for no more than 2-3 seconds (echoic)
- expected value
- the overall value of the choice determined by multiplying the utility of the choice times the probability of the outcome
- cognitive fixation
- identifying a hypothesis and sticking with it (mind set)
- decision making
- selecting one choice from a number of choices involving some level of uncertainty
- principle of predictive aiding
- displays that project into the future; allow operator to be proactive instead of reactive
- phonological loop
- represents verbal information in an acoustical form while it is being rehearsed
- labels
- static displays of knowledge in the world
- survey knowledge
- (exocentric) map knowledge, layout of environment
- landmark knowledge
- (egocentric) learned route by landmarks
- representativeness heuristic
- decision based on how closely info represents typical outcome
- schema
- one's entire knowledge structure about a given topic
- virtual reality
- fooling people into accepting as real what is only perceived
- confirmation bias
- (cognitive tunnel vision) tendency to seek out only confirming information
- unitization
- transformation from feature analysis to global or holistic processing (Gestalt) as familiarity with pattern increases; allows us to read familiar words rapidly and overlook typographical errors
- Geons
- fundamental geometric shapes that are combined together to form all complex shapes
- procedural knowledge
- (how) implicit knowledge of how to perform a skill (takes longer to acquire, fades slowly)
- Bottom-up processing
- (data-driven) object recognition guided by sensory features
- selective attention
- allows us to process important information
- algorithms
- procedures that will always lead to correct answer
- utility
- overall value or worth of a choice
- forgetting
- caused by decay, interference, or inability to access (retrieve) information
- declarative knowledge
- (what) concepts, facts, principles, rules, mental models; learned quickly, decays rapidly
- satisficing
- making a decision that is just good enough without taking extra time and effort to do better
- decision trees
- provide calculations of possible outcomes that would result from different choices
- population stereotype
- similar mental models held by many people
- availability heuristic
- people make judgements based on how easily information is retrieved (eg risk of airplane crash)
- analytic decision making
- slow, deliberate, and controlled responses to a problem
- situation awareness
- skilled behavior that encompasses the prcesses by which task-relevant information is extracted, integrated, assessed, and acted upon
- heuristics
- shortcuts that are not guaranteed to lead to best answer; but are more efficient
- automatic processing
- processing performed with little demand on attention (well practiced tasks)
- visuospatial sketchpad
- holds info in an analog spatial form while it is being used
- principle of consistency
- displays should present info in a consistent manner
- legibility
- contrast, spatial frequency, visual angle, etc
- mental models
- the way in which one expects a system to work
- feature compatibility
- features of display can be read faster and more accurately if they are consistent with features in memory