K Final Study Guide

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longitudinal fissure: separates cerebral hemispheres
4. catalysts: increase rate of chemical reactions without themselves being changed in the reaction enzymes are biological catalysts
Sweat (sudoriferous) glands: eccrine & apocrine
Elastic Cartilage: similar to hyaline cartilage, with elastin fibers in matrix
dermal ridges on palms of hand & soles of feet form epidermal ridges: genetically determined pattern of ridges; leaves fingerprint
Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substance): rough ER of neuron
?: anchor neurons to capillaries & aid in exchange & permeability
chemoreceptors: respond to chemicals in solution (molecules smelled, tasted; changes in blood pH, solutes)
functions: stretches & distends urinary organ
sutural bones: small bones located within immoveable joints (sutures)
cerebrospinal fluid: formed by choroid plexuses hanging from the roof of the ventricles
a carrier protein: assists movement of molecules down concentration gradient, no energy is required
photoreceptors: respond to light energy
Stratified Squamous Epithelial Tissue: multiple layers; basal layer cuboidal or columnar; carry out metabolism & mitosis; outer layers are keratinized
cerebral dominance: one hemisphere dominant for language (usually left)
locations: nonciliated in male sperm-carrying ducts & ducts of large glands; ciliated type lines trachea & most of upper respiratory tract
Chapter 5: The Integumentary System
anterior, posterior & lateral columns: (funiculi)
phospholipid bilayer: semipermeable and selectively permeable
DNA is: Composed of a sequence of four different nucleotides
location: bones
each axon enclosed in: endoneurium
with myosin binding sites accessible on actin, activated myosin heads bind actin: (cross bridge attachment)
Chapter 15: The Special Senses
motor neurons activate: muscle contraction & glandular secretion
neurofibrils: bundles of intermediate filaments (neurofilaments); maintain shape
sliding filament mechanism: during contraction, the thin filaments slide past the thick filaments so that actin & myosin overlap to a greater degree
Pagetps disease: excessive bone formation & breakdown
Microscopic structure of bone: no osteons; nutrients delivered by capillaries in endosteum
acetyl choline (ACh): released at neuromuscular junctions (excitatory for skeletal muscle; inhibitory for cardiac muscle)
Protective Coverings of the Brain: cranium & cranial meninges
gray matter: mostly nerve cell bodies & unmyelinated fibers in CNS
color blindness: a congenital lack of one or more cone types
alopecia: hair loss brought on by aging & hormones
meninges: 3 connective tissue membranes just external to brain
memory storage occurs: in stages & is continually changing
includes: carpal (wrist) bones (except pisiform, which is a sesamoid bone) & tarsal (ankle) bones (except calcaneus, which is an irregular bone)
the 4 nucleotide subunits of DNA are named: after the nitrogenous base each
Actin filaments combine with: myosin in muscle cells to enable muscle movement
Adduction: movement of limb toward midline
Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue: single layer of cube-shaped cells with large spherical nuclei
autonomic nervous system (ANS also involuntary nervous system): visceral motor neurons that regulate activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle & glands
Stratum Lucidum: a few rows of clear, flat dead keratinocytes
basal cells: stem cells; divide & differentiate into supporting cells
proprioceptors: respond to internal stimuli in skeletal muscle, tendons, joints, ligaments & connective tissue surrounding muscles & bones
microglia: small ovoid cells with long; thorny; processes that contact neurons
Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System
static equilibrium: maculae in the vestibule are sensory receptors for static equilibrium
fibrocartilage compressible: shock absorber, but limited movement; joints are amphiarthrotic
rRNA along with proteins comprise: the structure of the 2 subunits of the ribosome
striations result from: alternating dark A bands (thick filaments with overlapping thin filaments) & I bands (thin filaments) with central Z disc (connexin protein)
symptoms: progressive weakening & deformity of bones (esp. spine, pelvis, femur & skull)
carotene: yellow-orange pigment found in plants (carrotsä)
deep sulci divide cerebral hemisphere into 5 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital & insula
sarcolemma: plasma membrane of muscle
Microtubules: composed of tubulin dimers coiled into tubelike structures
Lactic acid build up in muscles: causes fatigue
fissures: deeper grooves separating larger regions of brain
melanin: tyrosine polymer; relies on enzyme tyrosinase in melanocytes
taste buds: about 10,000 in adult human; most on the tongue
irregular bones: complex shapes; donpt fit into other categories
Chapter 6: Bones & Skeletal Tissues
2. particle size: small molecules move faster (more (forceful) collisions)
location: under many epithelia (forms lamina propria); around organs & capillaries
Filtration: a pressure gradient pushes solute-containing fluid (filtrate) from area of high pressure to area of low pressure
exteroreceptors: sensitive to stimuli arising outside body (touch, pressure, pain receptors)
One triglyceride: Glycerol + 3 fatty acids
photoreceptors: rods & cones
thalamus: sorts & edits sensory information & relays to appropriate area of sensory cortex & association areas
?: afferent fibers carrying taste information from the tongue
sympathetic division: mobilizes body systems (accelerates circulatory & respiratory systems, slows digestion) during emergency
treatment: calcium & vitamin D supplements & sunlight
Electrical energy: energy in the movement of charged particles
Smooth muscle tissue: occurs in walls of visceral organs (stomach, bladder), respiratory passageways & blood vessels
In infants, medullary cavity & all spongy bone have: red bone marrow
Fibrocartilage: similar to hyaline cartilage, less firm with thick collagen fibers in matrix
myelinated fibers conduct impulses: rapidly
Sensory (afferent) division: nerves that convey impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors
neurilemma: bulge of plasma membrane with nucleus & most of cytoplasm of Schwann cell just external to myelin sheath
gustatory (taste) cells: receptor cells with membranes with gustatory hairs that sense stimuli; contacted by dendrites of sensory neurons; replaced every 7-10 days
interoreceptors: sensitive to stimuli arising outside body (internal viscera, blood vesselsä)
Osteoporosis: bone resorption outpaces bone deposit
pyramids: large pyramidal tracts descending from motor cortex
location: brain, spinal cord & nerves
pigments: melanin (black), red iron-containing pigment & lipofuscin
sweat prevents overheating: regulated by sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
Facilitated Diffusion: passage of small molecules (glucose, amino acids) across the plasma membrane even though they may not be lipid-soluble
Gene Expression: DNA is transcribed to RNA in the nucleus
DNA is organized into: distinct chromosomes
outer (external) ear: consists of the auricle (pinna) & the external auditory canal (travels from auricle to eardrum; ceruminous glands secrete earwax)
Oxidation: loss of electrons or H atoms
melanin from melanocytes in sclera: absorb light & prevent scattering
limbic: emotional brain
cause: insufficient dietary calcium or vitamin D (helps to absorb dietary calcium from intestine)
Hinge Joints: cylindrical projection of one bone fits into trough-shaped surface on another (example; interphylangeal joints)
short bones: cube-shaped; spongy bone with thin outer layer of compact bone
osteocytes: bone cells in small cavities called lacunae
functions: protects underlying tissues
Cardiac muscle tissue: occurs only in walls of heart
midbrain: between diencephalon & pons
G2 stage: is also a growth stage in which metabolism provides new metabolites and energy for the mitotic division
?: butterfly-shaped gray matter surrounded by outer white matter
location: under skin, around kidneys & eyeballs, within abdomen, breasts
bony labyrinth: cavity within the temporal bone filled with perilymph & containing the membranous labyrinth
motor nuclei help regulate: skeletal & visceral muscle activity
Disaccharides: 2 monosaccharides joined by condensation
red nucleus: pigmented nucleus; rich blood supply & iron pigment; motor relay for limb flexion
functions: absorption, secretion of mucus, enzymesä; ciliated propels mucus, reproductive cells
syndesmoses: bones connected by ligament; immovable or slightly movable
bitter: sensed at posterior of tongue
ampullae contain equilibrium receptors called: crista ampullaris
Reduction: gain of electrons or H atoms
visceral layer: covers & adheres to organs within cavity
axodendritic & axosomatic: most common also axoaxonic, dendrodendritic & dendrosomatic
weeping lubrication: fluid forced from cartilage during compression & soaked back up when pressure is relieved
white matter: myelinated fiber tracts in CNS
?: accumulates in stratum corneum & hypodermis; most evident in thick skin
Adenine and Guanine: purine bases, and have very similar structures
Bone: hard calcified matrix, many collagen fibers, well vascularized, osteocytes in lacunae
myelin sheath & neurilemma: myelin sheath (whitish protein-lipoid segmented sheath) formed by oligodendrocytes in CNS & Schwann cells in PNS; cells wrap themselves around axon of neuron
as myosin heads bind actin, they pivot as they change from: high-energy shape to low-energy shape, pulling thin filament toward center of sarcomere
causes: many, including hormonal deficiencies (especially steroid hormone deficiency due to decline in old age), insufficient exercise, poor diet,ä
includes: cranial bones, sternum & ribs, & scapulae (shoulder blades)
locations: nonkeratinized type forms linings of esophagus, mouth & vagina; keratinized type forms epidermis of skin
Compact bone (lamellar bone): units called osteons or Haversian systems
cornea: anterior 1/6 of fibrous tunic; transparent CT
Cranial Nerves: know names, #ps & basic functions
Diaphysis (shaft): forms long axis of bone; thick collar of compact bone surrounding medullary (marrow) cavity
Spongy bone: trabeculae a few cell layers of irregularly arranged lamellae & osteocytes connected by canaliculi
damage (from stroke) paralyzes: muscles on side of body opposite that of lesion (only voluntary movement lost)
mechanoreceptors: respond to touch, pressure (including blood pressure), vibration, stretch & itch
central (Haversian) canal: runs through center of osteon; carries blood vessels & nerve fibers
locations: nonciliated in most of digestive tract, gallbladder & excretory ducts of some glands; ciliated in small bronchi, some regions of uterus
extracellular matrix ?: mostly adipose with some areolar connective tissue, insulates, absorbs shocks, & anchors skin loosely to muscles
cones: respond to bright light; sharp, color vision
hair follicle: extends from epidermal surface to dermis or hypodermis
nail matrix cells produce: new growth
Microbodies: smaller version of lysosomes with specific enzyme activities
gray commissure: across center of gray matter; contains central canal; an open space continuous with the ventricles of the brain (arises from 4th ventricle)
Mechanical energy: energy used directly to move matter (used by muscle cells)
Pagetic bone: abnormally high ratio of spongy bone to compact bone
ADP & P: released from myosin head
3 regions: cerebral cortex (gray matter), white matter & basal nuclei
cardiac muscle: striated; involuntary, pacemaker cells set rate of contraction
lentiform nucleus: composed of putamen & globus pallidus
amino acids: GABA, glycine, aspartate, & glutamateä
the anterior wall of the middle ear contains an opening to the: auditory tube (leads to nasopharynx)
Transitional Epithelial Tissue: several layers; basal layer cuboidal or columnar; surface cells dome-shaped or squamous-like (depending on stretch)
?: rich supply of nerve fibers, blood vessels & lymphatic vessels
insula: cerebral lobe buried deep within lateral sulcus
pia mater: innermost layer; just superior to cerebrum
ganglion cells: receive input from bipolar cells & their axons leave eye as optic nerve
?: can transform into phagocytic cells & engulf/break down bacteria & cell debris
extracellular matrix: (collagen or elastin fibers; calcium phosphate (bone) composed of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins & proteoglycans
postsynaptic neuron: transmits signal away from the synapse
Histology: is the study of tissues
transcription is carried out by: a 5p to 3p RNA Polymerase, as well as additional protein factors the result of these modifications is mature mRNA
The Skin (Integument): composed of 2 regions:
treatment: calcitonin & drug therapy to prevent bone breakdown
In adults, red bone marrow in: the head of the femur & humerus, & diploe of flat bones & some irregular bones (hip bone)
peptides: substance P, endorphins & enkephalinsä
Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs): anchor cells to extracellular space & each other
grooves: anterior median fissure & posterior median sulcus
thermoreceptors: respond to temperature changes
functions: internal skeleton for support of other cell types
arachnoid: middle layer; subarachnoid space contains large capillaries & CSF
Starch: is a more moderately branched polymer of glucose, and is the storage form of carbohydrates in plant cells
In adults, marrow cavity contains fat: yellow bone marrow cavity
Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System
glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX): transmits impulses from taste buds on the posterior 1/3 of tongue
Axial Skeleton: 80 bones
Radiant energy: energy that travels in waves (includes solar energy, light energy)
keratinocytes: produce the fibrous protein keratin
symptoms: pain when weight placed on bones
RNA also uses: 4 nucleotide subunits; however, uracil (U) replaces thymine in RNA
Nucleic Acids: Nucleic Acids are polymers of nucleotide monomers
Ball & Socket Joints: spherical (ball-shaped) head of one bone fits into cuplike socket of another (example; shoulder & hip joints)
choroid plexus: secretes CSF
locations: in kidney tubules, ducts of small glands, ovary surface
sarcoplasmic reticulum: smooth ER of muscle cells; store calcium
hair (pili): flexible strands of mostly dead, keratinized cells
The Ear: Hearing & Balance
Plasma membrane: outer boundary of cells (except plant cells; also cell wall)
3 chambers: (scala vestibuli, scala media & scala tympani)
somatic reflexes: lead to contraction of skeletal muscles
vibrates with frequency of sound waves entering through external ear; transfers vibration to: ossicles of middle ear
Basal Nuclei (basal ganglia): subcortical nuclei deep within cerebral white matter
Sympathetic division: fight or flight system activated during emergency or threatening/stressful situations; rapid heart & breathing rate, greatly decreased gastrointestinal & urinary tract activity, pupils dilated. Visceral blood vessels are constricted & blood is shunted to active skeletal muscles
?: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells & white blood cells with collagen, elastin & reticular fibers
Thin skin has only: 4 layers missing stratum lucidum; stratum corneum thinner
Rough ER: associated with ribosomes; proteins translated on ribosomes associated with the rough ER will be transported and/or secreted outside cell
filiform papillae: in center of tongue; no taste buds
salty: sensed at anterior sides of tongue
Cell Cycle: Consists of Interphase and Mitosis
inner neural layer: outpocketing of brain; 3 main types of neurons:
somatic afferent fibers: convey impulses from skin, skeletal muscles & joints
Negative Feedback: the product or response shuts off or reduces the level of the original stimulus; the variable then changes in a direction opposite the initial change
Saddle Joints: resemble condyloid joints; each bone has concave & convex articular surfaces (like saddle); carpometacarpal joints); greater freedom of movement (example
example: muscle attempts to move a load requiring force greater than available
papillary layer: upper layer composed of areolar connective tissue
?: main visceral control center; controls homeostasis
sensory & visceral motor nuclei: (control heart rate & blood vessel diameter, breathing rate, vomiting, coughing)
coccygeal plexus: spinal nerves S4-Co; supplies small area of skin in coccygeal region
Surface Anatomy: the study of internal body structures as they relate to the body surface (skin)
biogenic amines: catecholamines (dopamine, epinephrine & norepinephrine) & indolamines (histamine & serotonin)ä
Denaturation: disruption of specific 3D structure of a protein by increasing temperature (boiling) or changing pH
amygdala: recognizes angry or fearful facial expressions, assesses danger & elicits fear response
Pivot Joints: rounded end of one bone protrudes into a bony ring/sleeve on another (example; atlas & axis articulation)
?: thick collagen fiber bundles form lines of cleavage (tension lines) in skin; used in surgery (incisions made parallel to lines to speed healing)
functions: attaches muscles to bone & other muscles, attaches bones to bones; withstands high stress
semicircular canals: 3 rounded tubes projecting from utricle through swellings called ampullae
The nucleus is bounded by a porous membrane: the nuclear envelope, which regulates passage of molecules into & out of the nucleus
perforating (Volkmannps) canal: at right angles to long axis; connect blood vessels & nerves of periosteum to those of central canals & medullary cavity
eccrine sweat glands (merocrine sweat glands): far more numerous; most abundant on palms of hands, soles of feet & forehead
outermost cells: dead & keratinized; lifespan of 25-45 days
medulla oblongata: most inferior part of brain stem; blends with spinal cord
the hippocampus of the limbic system & surrounding structures play roles in: memory processing
keratinocytes: flat & spiny (prickle cells)
presynaptic neuron: conducts impulses toward synapse
types of hairs: short, fine vellus hairs; longer, coarser terminal hair
control chemical environment surrounding neurons: clean up potassium ions & neurotransmitters
During anemia (blood cell deficiency), yellow marrow can revert to: red marrow
functions: maintains shape while adding flexibility
primary (somatic) motor cortex: pyramidal cells; large neurons allow precise control over voluntary skeletal muscle movement; form pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts
Blood: red blood cells (erythrocytes) & white blood cells (leukocytes) in fluid matrix (plasma)
gomphoses: peg in socket joint; only example is tooth in bony alveolar socket
cause: unknown, may be viral
Flexion: decreases angle of joint & brings bones closer together
transverse fissure: separates cerebral hemispheres from cerebellum
nodes of Ranvier: gaps in myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann cells
Cytosol: Functions in maintaining shape of cell and movement of subcellular structures
sutures: between bones of the skull
Examples of negative feedback mechanisms: regulation of body temperature, the withdrawal reflex, regulation of blood glucose levels by the hormones insulin & glucagon
locations: ureters, bladder & part of urethra
Chemical energy: energy in the bonds of chemicals
Extension: increases angle of joint & moves bones away from each other
Peritoneum: covers abdominal viscera within abdominal cavity
foliate papillae: along both sides of tongue towards posterior
Plane Joints: flat articular surfaces, allow only short slipping or gliding movements (example; joints between vertebral articular processes)
dynamic equilibrium: the crista ampullaris in the ampullae of the semicircular canals is the receptor for dynamic equilibrium
functions: cushions organs; many immune cells regulate immunity
astrocytes: star-shaped; most abundant & versatile glial cells
lipofuscin: aging pigment (accumulates in elderly)
each taste bud has: 40-100 epithelial cells of 3 types
white matter: nerve fibers allow communication between different parts of spinal cord & between spinal cord & brain
Endoplasmic Reticulum: (ER)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): nerves that extend from the CNS (outside the CNS)
Hyperextension: moving head backwards beyond straight
Rotation: turning of bone around its long axis
location: tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses
Inorganic Molecules: Molecules that do not contain carbon and hydrogen (e.g.; salts, strong acids and bases, metal compounds)
supporting cells: most cells within taste bud; insulate receptor cells
endosteum: covers trabeculae of spongy bone & canals of compact bone
vagus nerve (cranial nerve X): transmits impulses from a few taste buds on the epiglottis & pharynx
Motor (efferent) division: transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs (muscles & glands)
Langerhansp cells (epidermal dendritic cells): macrophages; part of immune system
Energy: the capacity to do work
sclera: white of eye
functions: transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors to effectors
Stratum Corneum: outermost layer; 20-30 cell layers thick
visual pigments of rods & cones are a combination of: retinal (a vitamin A derivative) & opsins (pigmented proteins)
Microanatomy: the study of microscopic body structures
long bones: have greater length than width; consist of diaphysis (shaft) & epiphyses; slightly curved to absorb stress
joint (synovial) cavity: potential space with synovial fluid
functions: secretion & absorption
location: in blood vessels
Aerobic respiration: yields 36 or 38 ATP per glucose
parathyroid hormone (PTH, from parathyroid gland): stimulates osteoclasts to resorb bone to raise blood calcium levels
flat bones: thin; composed of 2 parallel plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone
Osteomalacia: bones are inadequately mineralized (osteoid not calcified)
Each amino acid has a central carbon bonded to: an amino group, a carboxylic acid group, a hydrogen atom, and the remaining side chain (R group); it is the R group that differs in different amino acids the R groups do not normally bond between amino acids (the exception is cysteine, which forms disulfide (S-S) bonds within and between polypeptide chains for added strength
inferior colliculi: auditory relay
outer pigmented layer: a single cell layer thick; contains phagocytic pigmented epithelial cells that absorb light & prevent scattering
inorganic component: hydroxyapatites (mineral salts); mostly calcium phosphates
Spongy bone (cancellous bone): trabeculae; needle-like or flat pieces internal to compact bone; spaces between trabeculae filled with red or yellow bone marrow
Regional Anatomy: the study of groups of structures in specific body regions
Stratum Granulosum: 3-5 cell layers thick; cells contain granules
Serous membranes: thin 2-layered membranes with fluid-filled space that covers the viscera within thoracic & abdominal cavities and lines walls of thorax & abdomen
3. concentration: usually increased reactant concentrations increases rate (more collisions)
cochlea: snail-shaped chamber extending from the saccule
Reticular Connective Tissue: reticular fiber network in loose ground substance; reticular cells
corpora quadrigemina: midbrain nuclei
brachial plexus: cranial nerves C5-T1; supplies shoulders & upper limbs
Merkel cells: associate with disclike sensory nerve endings to form Merkel disc; a sensory receptor for touch
superior colliculi: visual reflex centers
Carbohydrates: (contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms)
?: processes information from cerebral motor cortex & from sensory pathways and sends instructions to cerebral motor cortex & motor centers to regulate balance, posture & coordinated skeletal muscle movement
DNA Synthesis: DNA replication is carried out by the enzyme DNA Polymerase, as well as some additional protein factors
sarcoplasm: like cytoplasm of normal cell; contains many glycosomes (store glycogen) & myoglobin (carries & stores oxygen)
Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs
?: protects cell nucleus from UV light-induced mutations; UV repair mechanisms may stimulate synthesis
synchondroses: bones joined by hyaline cartilage; almost always synarthrotic
inflammation/infection can lead to: acne
secrete sweat: hypotonic blood filtrate 99% water with salts, vitamin C, antibodies, metabolic wastes & lactic acid
maculae respond to: vertical & side-to-side head movements
middle ear (tympanic cavity): small air-filled cavity within temporal bone lined with mucosa & flanked by the eardrum & 2 openings (oval (vestibular) window & round (cochlear) window)
corpus striatum: composed of lentiform nucleus & caudate nucleus
?: cilia circulate CSF (CSF is secreted by capillaries of choroids plexuses
interstitial lamellae: partially formed fill gaps or have been replaced
Anaphase: Chromosomes move toward opposite poles of the cell due to disassembly of spindle fibers
Nervous Tissue: neurons & supporting cells
functions: support, levers for muscles, calcium storage, blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) in marrow
melanin from melanocytes at base of follicle produces: color
Diencephalon: central core of forebrain; surrounded by cerebral hemispheres
ceruminous glands: modified apocrine glands in the external ear canal
Central Nervous System (CNS): brain & spinal cord
Chapter 2: Chemistry Comes Alive
Chapter 3: Cells; The Living Units
choroid: highly vascular dark brown membrane; blood vessels supply nutrients to all tunics
oligodendrocytes: wrap processes around thicker neurons of CNS; produce myelin sheath of CNS neurons
RNA: RNA is synthesized from 1 strand of DNA
?: houses hair follicles, oil & sweat (sudoriferous) glands
Muscle metabolism: muscles need constant supply of ATP
Stratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue: several layers; basal layer usually cuboidal
Membranes: periosteum covers entire surface of bone except joint surfaces
unmyelinated fibers conduct impulses: slowly
calcium binds to: TnC, which changes shape & moves tropomyosin away from myosin binding sites on actin
motor (efferent) nerves: carry impulses away from CNS
?: line central cavities of brain & spinal cord, between tissue fluid of interneuronal space & cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within cavities
cingulate gyrus: regulation of expression of emotions & feelings of frustration
Exergonic reactions: release energy
articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage protects bone ends
vestibule: central region composed of 2 sacs; the saccule & utricle
Cartilagenous Joints: bones joined by cartilage; no joint cavity
functions: tensile strength, absorbs shock
includes: femur, tibia & fibula, humerus, radius & ulna & phalanges of fingers & toes
Synovial Joints: bones separated by fluid-containing joint cavity
Sensory Receptors: specialized to respond to changes (stimuli) in environment
locations: male urethra & some large ducts of glands
circumferential lamellae: extend around all osteons within shaft (just deep to periosteum)
sensory tunic (retina): consists of 2 layers:
pons: between midbrain & medulla oblongata
Stratum Spinosum: several layers thick; interrupted by dermal papillae
skeletal muscle cells: long (hundreds of cm) & wide; multinucleate, composed of thin filaments (actin, tropomyosin & troponin complex) & thick filaments (myosin)
arrector pili muscle: smooth muscle bundle that contracts to raise hair
Dermis: underlying layer composed of fibrous connective tissue; vascularized
Chapter 1: The Human Body; An Orientation
Chapter 9: Muscles & Muscle Tissue
location: embryonic skeleton, covers long bones in joints, costal cartilage of ribs, cartilage of nose, trachea & larynx
Peroxisomes: microbodies that contain enzymes for oxidizing certain organic molecules with the release of hydrogen peroxide (toxic, but breaks down into water & oxygen)
Metaphase: Chromosomes align at metaphase plate attached to kinetochore spindle fibers
Condyloid (Ellipsoidal) Joints: oval articular surfaces of one bone fit into depression of another (example; radiocarpal joints)
Cellulose: is an unbranched polymer of glucose, with adjacent chains held together by hydrogen bonds, giving it a very rigid structure. It is the major structural component of plant cell walls
?: regulate motor control (muscle movements, & perhaps also attention & cognition)
location: intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, knee joint discs
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue: single layer of mostly column-shaped cells with different heights (some donpt reach apical surface) & nuclei at different levels; some have cilia; may include goblet cells
Mature mRNA is: translated to protein in the cytoplasm (at the ribosomes)
Thick skin has: 5 layers (strata) Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum & stratum corneum
Gross (Macroscopic) Anatomy: the study of large (readily visible) body structures (heart, lungs, kidneys)
nerve impulse leads to: depolarization & calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum
RNA: is single-stranded
parietal layer: lines walls of cavity
contains cochlear duct housing the: organ of Corti, which contains receptors for hearing
autonomic (visceral) reflexes: lead to responses from smooth muscle, cardiac muscle & glands
location: external ear (pinna), epiglottis
premotor cortex: controls learned repetitious or patterned motor skills (playing musical instrument, typing) & helps in planning movements
Isometric contractions: muscle neither shortens nor lengthens
Anaerobic glycolysis & lactic acid formation: 2 ATP yield per glucose
amygdala: on tail of caudate nucleus; part of limbic system
functions: diffusion & filtration; secretes lubricating substances in serosae
Monosaccharides: simple sugars with a backbone of 3 to 7 carbon atoms
includes: vertebrae, coxal (hip) bone, calcaneus (heel bone), & some facial bones
Cytoskeleton: composed of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and actin filaments
Skeletal muscle tissue: attach to & cover bony skeleton
Most taste buds are located within papillae: (projections of the tongue mucosa)
Within each nucleolus, ribosomal RNA is: produced and joins with ribosomal proteins to form ribosomes
gyri: elevated ridges of brain tissue, separated by shallow grooves called sulci
epithalamus: ?
nociceptors: respond to pain from potentially damaging stimulus
substantia nigra: pigmented nucleus; contains melanin, a precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine
Nails: scalelike epidermal modifications at dorsal surface of distal region of fingers & toes
memory involves: the storage & retrieval of information
Salutatory conduction: the presence of the myelin sheath insulates against leakage of charge & only allows generation of action potential at nodes of Ranvier between adjacent Schwann cells (or oligodendrocytes)
Epidermis: keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Mitosis: M stage
Parasympathetic division: resting & digesting system low energy use (low blood pressure, heart rate & respiratory rate), active digestion of food & elimination of waste; pupils of eyes are constricted & lenses accommodated for close vision
Epiphyses: ends of bone; often more expanded than diaphysis; outer compact & internal spongy bone
vascular tunic (uvea): 3 regions:
hypothalamus: connected to pituitary gland by stalk called infundibulum
Broca's area: in one hemisphere only (generally left)
sour: sensed at middle sides of tongue
bundles of fascicles enclosed in: epineurium
rods: respond to dim light; blurry shades of gray
ducts empty into hair follicles: in addition to components of sweat, secretion contains lipid & proteins
Hypodermis: subcutaneous layer just deep to the dermis
Nucleus: stores genetic information in all eukaryotic cells
Plant cells divide using: a cell plate to allow formation of a new plasma membrane and cell wall between the two new cells. Cell wall is too rigid for cleavage furrow
Pleura: covers lungs within pleural cavities
sweet: sensed at anterior tip of tongue
Abduction: movement of limb away from midline
A sarcomere: is the region of a myofibril between adjacent Z discs
Proteins: Proteins are composed of chains of amino acid monomers
Retrograde amnesia: loss of memories formed in the distant past
secrete cerumen (earwax): deters insects & blocks foreign material
Connective Tissue: most abundant primary tissue
bundles of fibers (fascicles) enclosed in: perineurium
Interphase: consists of G1, S, and G2 stages.
Prophase: chromatin condenses and the nuclear membrane begins disintegration. Mitotic spindle begins to assemble from microtubules in centrosomes, where centrioles form short asters prior to formation of spindle fibers.
inner ear (labyrinth): consists of bony labyrinth & membranous labyrinth
secrete sebum (rich in oils): into hair follicle (or pore) bacteriocidal; lubricates hair & skin
anterior, posterior & lateral horns contain: the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons, autonomic sensory neurons & autonomic motor neurons, respectively
The 2 strands (nucleotide chains) of the double helix: complementary:
dura mater: outer layer
Simple Columnar Epithelial Tissue: single layer of column-shaped cells with oval nuclei; some have cilia or microvilli; may include goblet cells
Ground Substance: fills space between cells & contains fibers
contains equilibrium receptors for balance called: maculae
ganglia: collections of neuron cell bodies associated with nerves in PNS
protects skin with keratin & thick plasma membranes; glycolipids: prevent water loss
circumvallate (vallate) papillae: form an inverted V at the back of the tongue; 7-12 with ~250 taste buds each
melanocytes: spider-shaped cells that produce the pigment melanin
Plantar flexion: depressing foot
stapes (stirrup): attaches to oval window of vestibule
a nucleotide: a pentose sugar + a phosphate + a nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) base
Chapter 4: Tissue; The Living Fabric
special motor speech area: controls muscles of tongue, throat & lips during (& possibly in planning of) speech
Appendicular Skeleton: 126 bones
DNA forms: a double-helical structure (DNA is double-stranded)
malleus (hammer): attaches to eardrum
Outer boundary of cells: functions in regulation of passage of molecules into and out of the cell
sesamoid bones: sesame shaped bones that develop in tendons to protect against friction & stress
Organic Molecules: Carbon-based molecules
fovea centralis: only cones present; region of greatest visual acuity
calcitonin (from parafollicular (C) cells of thyroid): inhibits osteoclasts & stimulates calcification of bone matrix to lower blood calcium levels
canaliculi: connect lacunae to each other & central canal
?: superior part of brain 83% of total brain mass
Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System & Reflex Activity
Cerebellum: dorsal to pons & medulla; inferior to occipital lobes
trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) does not innervate taste buds, bud: transmits impulses from nociceptors that discriminate texture in foods, as well as hot/cold & spicy foods
Systemic Anatomy: the gross anatomy of organ systems is studied
Kinetic energy: energy of motion
ependymal cells: shape varies from squamous to columnar; many are ciliated
Chapter 10: The Muscular System
functions: transports oxygen & carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes & other substances
RAS: filters out repetitive stimuli
processes: dendrites & axons; extend from cell body
parasympathetic division: generally opposite of sympathetic responses conserves energy, promotes nonemergency functions (digestion)
rods use: rhodopsin (deep purple pigment)
tracts cross over to opposite side before entering spinal cord: cerebral hemispheres control voluntary movements of muscles on opposite side of body
Reflexes: also known as the involuntary nervous system (subconscious control) & the general visceral motor system
Direct phosphorylation: creatine phosphate converted to creatine by creatine kinase phosphate released added to ADP to form ATP
reticular layer: lower layer (most of thickness of dermis); composed of dense irregular connective tissue
Autonomic Nervous System: system of motor neurons within the motor division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle & glands.
Oxygen debt: need additional oxygen to oxidize & remove lactic acid from muscle cells
Telophase: Chromosomes are at opposite poles of the cell; nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes, and spindle disappears. Cytokinesis beginsä
pineal gland: secretes hormone melatonin; helps in regulation of sleep-wake cycle
corneal epithelium: 2layers stratified squamous epithelium on outside with deep simple squamous epithelial tissue
Circumduction: moving a limb so that it describes a cone in space
tropomyosin covers: myosin binding sites on actin molecules in resting muscle
Synapse: junction that mediates transfer of information from neuron to neuron or effector (muscle, gland)
1. temperature: molecules move faster as the temperature is increased (increases collisions) moderate temperature is best; high temperatures often denature (inactivate) enzymes
Angular movements: increase or decrease angle between 2 bones
iris: lies between cornea & lens; has round central opening called pupil
Endergonic reactions: require (absorb) energy
melanin granules: protect the cell nucleus from UV radiation
Epidermis: outermost layer composed of epithelial cells
conduction tracts (pons: bridge); complete pathways between higher brain centers & spinal cord; relays between motor cortex & cerebellum
sacral plexus: spinal nerves L4-S4; supplies buttocks, perineum & lower limbs
Adipose Connective Tissue: closely packed adipocytes (fat cells with large fat droplet)
lamellated granules: contain waterproofing glycolipid; released into extracellular space to prevent water loss
dermal papillae: projections that indent the epidermis; contain capillary loops & touch receptors (Meissnerps corpuscles)
lumbar plexus: spinal nerves L1-L4; supplies anterior abdominal wall, external genitals & part of lower limbs
Synarthroses: immovable joints (suturesä)
Potential energy: stored energy that is available to do work
Amphiarthroses: slightly movable joints (symphysesä)
locations: in kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, heart lining, blood vessels & lymphatic vessels, lining of ventral body cavity
Hematopoiesis occurs in: red marrow (in cavities of spongy bone of long bones & diploe of flat bones)
Chapter 8: Joints
overactivity leads to: seborrhea
cones use 3 different types of opsins to yield: red cones green cones blue cones
Chapter 7: The Skeletal System
Cerebral Cortex: conscious mind; awareness, communication, memory & understanding & initiation of voluntary movements
keratohyaline granules: help in keratin formation
Chapter 11: The Nervous System & Nervous Tissue
treatment: calcium & vitamin D supplement, & hormone replacement therapy (HRT)
hemoglobin: oxygenated hemoglobin in dermal capillaries gives fair skin a pinkish color
functions: support, cushioning, resists stress
Hyaline Cartilage: amorphous firm matrix; collagen fibers form glassy (invisible) network; chondrocytes in lacunae
Animal cells divide by means of a: cleavage furrow
flexure lines: dermal folds near joints
chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII): transmits impulses from taste buds at the anterior 2/3 of tongue
Late Prophase: chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers, and are moved toward the center of the cell (metaphase plate). Spindle fibers attach to the kinetochores (attachment point of centromeres) of duplicated chromosomes. Nuclear membrane completes disintegration.
damage results in loss of: learned skills, but movement of muscles is often still possible
articular capsule: external fibrous capsule (dense irregular CT) & internal synovial membrane (loose CT)
RNA does not form: a double helix (no pairing of complementary bases between 2 strands)
fungiform papillae: most numerous type; found scattered over the surface of the tongue, but most at the tip & along sides
Compact bone: dense outer layer of bone
Sebaceous (oil) glands: simple alveolar glands (holocrine glands); located all over body except palms of hand & soles of feet
Dense Regular Connective Tissue: dense (primarily) parallel collagen fibers, few elastin fibers; fibroblasts
cervical plexus: cranial nerves C1-C5; supplies skin & muscles of head, neck & superior part of shoulders & chest
smooth muscle: forces fluids & other substances through body channels, nonstriated; involuntary, slow & sustained contractions
Diarthroses: freely movable joints (most joints)
bipolar cells: link between photoreceptors & ganglion cells
location: lymphoid organs
tRNA molecules carry: amino acids to the ribosome during translation (a tRNA for each amino acid)
peripheral nerves classified as: spinal nerves or cranial nerves
Dermis: strong, flexible connective tissue
S phase: is the synthesis stage of the cell cycle, when the DNA is replicated.
myosin composed of: long central tails & laterally oriented heads (cross-bridges) that bind actin
G1 stage: is a growth (formerly gap) stage during which the organelles increase in number to produce enough for two new cells
hippocampus: plays a role in storing information in long-term memory
somatic nervous system (voluntary nervous system): somatic motor neurons that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles
visceral afferent fibers: convey impulses from visceral organs (organs of ventral body cavity)
ciliary body: contains smooth muscle bundles (ciliary muscles) that control lens shape
mixed nerves: contain both sensory & motor fibers (can be somatic &/or autonomic fibers)
4 types of papillae: ?
lumbosacral plexus: lower limb; branches to pelvis, abdomen & buttocks
apocrine sweat glands: mostly confined to axillary & anogenital regions
location: dermis of skin, digestive submucosa, fibrous capsules of organs & joints
pupil opens & closes to: control light entry into eye; controlled by smooth muscle in iris
blind spot (optic disc): location on retina where the optic nerve exits eye
Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue: single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped nuclei & little cytoplasm
cell body (perikaryon or soma): contains nucleus & most organelles (no centrioles)
symphyses: articular surfaces of bone covered with hyaline cartilage fused to plate of fibrocartilage
Intermediate Filaments and actin filaments: have structural roles throughout the cell
Lateralization: each hemisphere gas unique abilities
Skin Color: dictated by 3 pigments; melanin, carotene, & hemoglobin
troponin complex consists of: TnI (inhibits actin), TnT (binds tropomyosin & positions it on actin) & TnC (binds calcium to start contraction)
membranous labyrinth: floats in perilymph within bony labyrinth; filled with fluid called endolymph
osteons: cylinder oriented parallel to long axis of bone; within each cylinder is tubes (concentric circles) of bone matrix (lamellae)
pure taste sensations are grouped into: 4 types
Anatomy: the study of the structure of body parts & their relationship to one another
tympanic membrane (eardrum): boundary between outer & middle ear
reticular activating system: maintains cerebral cortical alertness
Know the location of each of the following. Also know the subdivisions where appropriate (for example: the pleural cavity is within the thoracic cavity, which in turn is within the ventral body cavity).
fibrous tunic: dense, avascular CT; 2 regions:
thick skin: has accelerated cell division & keratinization
meet skin at folds of skin called: nail folds & cuticle
Stratum Basale (Stratum Germinativum): basal layer; deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to dermis
Areolar Connective Tissue: gel-like matrix with all 3 fiber types; fibroblasts, mast cells, macrophages & some white blood cells
Physiology: the study of the function of the bodyps structural machinery
Smooth ER: synthesizes phospholipids in all cells; various other cell type-specific functions
Dorsiflexion: lifting foot
functions: protection, secretion
Cytosine and Thymine: are pyrimidine bases, and have very similar structures
Reticular Formation: extends through core of brainstem
Isotonic contractions: muscle changes in length & moves load
DNA: each base always pairs with its complement, so that the second strand of the double helix can be deduced, and synthesized in the cell, by simply pairing complementary bases
Contraction of Skeletal Muscle Fiber: activation of myosinps cross bridges
Anterograde amnesia: ability to associate new information with old is lost; person lives in here & now, but can still learn skills
Chemical composition of bone: calcium salt crystals pack around collagen fibers in matrix
includes: skull bones, auditory ossicles (ear bones), hyoid bone, ribs, sternum (breastbone) & vertebral column (backbone)
functions: secretion & propulsion of mucus
brain stem: (midbrain, pons & medulla oblongata)
myofibrils: contractile elements of skeletal muscle
sensory (afferent) nerves: carry impulses toward CNS
located in deepest layer of epidermis; melanosomes: in melanocyte processes transfer melanin to keratinocytes
functions: cushions organs; reserve food fuel, insulation
functions: withstands tension, adds structural strength
synovial fluid: occupies free spaces in joint cavity; reduces friction
DNA: is the genetic material of the cell (inherited from parents)
sensory neurons link: body parts to CNS
Nerve: cordlike organ of PNS consisting of bundles of axons enclosed in layers of connective tissue
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue: irregular shaped collagen fibers, few elastin fibers; fibroblasts
Pericardium: covers heart within pericardial cavity
Epithelial Tissue (epithelium): a sheet of cells that lines a body cavity or covers a body surface
excitation of photoreceptors occurs following: a chain of reactions initiated by the isomerization (structural change) of retinal & detachment of retinal from opsin (bleaching of the pigment) after being struck by light
the 4 bases are: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), & thymine (T)
Fibrous Joints: bones joined by fibrous tissue; no joint cavity
Cytology: is the study of cells
Limbic System: regions of the medial aspects of each cerebral hemisphere & diencephalons encircling brain stem (limbus; ring) & linked by the fornix
organic component: cells (osteocytes, osteoblasts & osteoclasts) & osteoid (organic matrix ground substance & collagen fibers)

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