Lester Chapter 11
Terms
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- Scientific Observation
- systematic recording of behavior, events, or arrangements of physical objects as they are witnessed. Four conditions must be met to qualify as “scientific†observation, Purpose, Systematic planning, Systematic recording, and Accuracy
- Purpose
- Agenda and Surface and hidden agendas
- Systematic planning
- scientific observation is planned methodically according to some set of procedures, rules of measurement, and so on
- Systematic recording
- scientific observation is precisely and completely recorded and related to propositions or hypotheses rather than to merely interesting curiosities.
- Accuracy
- scientific observation Is subjected to checks or controls for both validity and reliability
- Observable phenomena
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– there are seven conventional classifications of observable phenomena
Physical objects, Temporal patterns, Spatial relations, Expressive behavior, Verbal behavior, Human actions, and Records—verbal or pictorial - Records—verbal or pictorial
- includes documents, photos, illustrations, graphics, etc.
- Human actions
- what people do such as patterns of aggressive driving
- Verbal behavior
- what people say or don’t say—travelers waiting in line
- Expressive behavior
- body language, tone of voice, and other nonverbal behavior
- Spatial relations
- office arrangements, distances between desks, traffic patterns
- Temporal patterns
- time lapses between events, arriving early, late, or on time
- Physical objects
- what people have in their pantry or garbage, patterns of wear
- Types of Observation
- there are two broad types or classes of observation; Human and mechanical observation
- Human observation
- when the situation or behavior to be recorded is not easily predicted
- Mechanical observation
- when the situation or behavior to be recorded is routine, predictable, repetitive, or programmatic
- Great Advantage of Human Observation
- the researcher is studying primarily nonverbal behavior so the data are not as subject the distortions, inaccuracies, and other biases such as falsification or unconscious misrepresentation.
- Limitations of human observation
- there are also several shortcomings to human observation; Issue of privacy, Thoughts and feelings, Interpretation, Too much to observe, and Limited time
- Thoughts and feelings
- can’t tell for sure what’s going on in a person’s head—skilled observers can only make inferences
- Interpretation
- an single action can mean many things—the observer’s own biases and baggage introduce subjectivity
- Too much to observe
- too much happening too fast—can’t catch it all in real time
- Limited time
- only short periods an be observed which may or may not be representative of the total
- Issue of privacy
- if observees don’t know the purpose of the research there may be issues of deception and invasion of privacy
- Supplementary Evidence
- the data from observational studies—with videotape or one-way mirrors—of what people are doing in role-playing sessions or focus groups can add valuable supplementary insights into people’s “true feelings.â€
- Communication
- Communication is behavior that results in exchange of meaning
- Direct Observation
- a straightforward attempt to observe and record what naturally occurs—that is, the investigator does not create an artificial situation
- Errors associated with direct observation
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Observer bias, Recording error, Misinterpretation, and
Contrived observation - Contrived observation
- observation in which the investigator creates an artificial environment or situation in order to test a hypothesis
- Recording error
- failing to follow guidelines such as not recording every detail
- Misinterpretation
- misreading ambiguous signs such as what a smile means—could mean pleasure or could mean amusement
- Observer bias
- distortions of measurement resulting from the cognitive behavior or actions of the witnessing observer
- What to Observe
- The participants themselves, the setting, the purpose, social behavior, and frequency and duration
- The participants themselves
- age, gender, occupation, etc., but more importantly what is revealed by their dress, symbols, language
- The setting
- Expectations, Atmosphere, and Location
- Social Behavior
- Who talks to whom, norms, listening, attitudes, and effectiveness
- Frequency and Duration
- What events occurred, how long they lasted, is the pattern recurring or unique, what events preceded, etc.
- Participant observation
- the observer gains firsthand knowledge by being in the social situation. The participant observer could be a passive player, a facilitator, a consultant or intervener, or an active participant
- Ethical issues
- a number of ethical issues with respect to human and social observation revolve around questions concerning “hidden†observers and entrapment as in contrived observations.
- Observation of Physical Objects
- Observation of physical phenomena and the study of physical objects can reveal surprising insights into a research problem obtainable in no other way
- Physical trace evidence
- visible marks or tangible evidence of past actions or events (i.e. Worn books in a library—indicate the most popular volumes)
- Advantage of physical trace evidence
- gets past problem of what people say they buy or consume versus what is in their pantries.
- Content Analysis
- the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication
- Manifest content
- analyzing what can be seen, coded or scored in some fashion.
- Quantitative
- reducing the content to some degree of categorical or numerical measurement
- Systematic
- using a formalized and standardized procedure or protocol followed by all coders of the information
- Objective
- making the analysis free of subjective bias or misinterpretation
- Advantages of content analysis
- Enables the reduction of such communication media as advertisements, TV shows, letters, contracts, responses to projective techniques, dreams, conversations, and so on to themes, special interests, hidden agendas, wishes, hopes, frustrations, needs, and the like and Provides insights into conscious and unconscious feelings, attitudes, and behavioral tendencies
- Mechanical Observations
- Television Monitoring, Website traffic, Physiological monitoring (i.e. voice pitch analysis, eye-tracking, etc.), and Scanners and Barcodes