Psych 333
Terms
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- Cerebrum
- largest brain structure. left & right hemispheres connected by corpus callosum
- Confirmation Bias
- when generating possible solutions we should seek falsification not positive (vowel even problem)
- Belief-Bias Effects
- truth influences judgments of validity.
- acceptable grammar can:
- generate acceptable sentences, reject unacceptable sentences, explain embiguity
- speech sounds of speech perception
- production mechanisms, speech spectrograms
- transformational grammar
- Chomsky, Speakers have tacit but no explicit knowledge of grammar. Competence is greater than performance.
- Language is Required for Thought
- Support: thinking often leads to subvocal speech, deaf sign during during sleep. Refuted by: problem solving animals, abilities of humans without language, abstract thought & memory (gist), full paralysis (via curare)
- Principal of Caution
- tend to accept weak & guarded conclusions more readily than strong ones (some, all)
- Viewpoint
- thinking as restructuring (reorganizing) problems [Gestalt = organized as whole]
- expertise
- experts have advantage due to knowledge, methods, speed, metacognitive
- phonemic resoration effect
- we can detect and correctly locate silent gaps
- Framing Effects
- Wording can influence decision. Violate Utility but not Prospect. Focus on Gains (risk aversive) or Losses (risk prone)
- perceiving and remembering complex or fragmentary material
- face recognition, ordering faces by age
- 2 types of reasoning
- Descriptive (how ppl reason, ignore relevant...), Normative (how ppl ought to reason)
- Representativeness Heuristic
- tend to see more representative outcomes as more likely, sometimes despite base rate of small sample size, and sometimes in violation of basic probability (in conjunction fallacy)
- well-defined vs ill-defined problems
- goal, initial conditions, and rules are unclear in illdefined
- syntax
- ordering, set of rules for combining morphemes
- 3 Theories of Relationship of Thought and Language
- Language is Required for thought; language strongly influences thought; language depends on cognition
- Logical Fallacies
- Affirm the Consequent, Deny the Antecedent
- speech spectrograms
- reveal formants, bands of speech energy
- 4 ways speech perception is easier than reading
- alphabetic characters don't have unique phonetic equivalents (grapheme=boat,hoe), context must be considered to assign phonemes to graphemes (bread,bead), small area of effective vision, written language lacks prosody
- Theories of (Written) Word Recognition
- Indirect-Access Hypothesis, Direct-Access Hypothesis, Dual-Access Hypothesis
- 5 true language criteria
- semanticity, generative, displacement, structure, arbitrariness
- Right Hemispheric Specialization
- visuospatial tasks. Perceiving and remembering complex or fragmentary material. Perceiving and producing expressions
- Direct-Access Hypothesis
- readers recognize words directly from printed letters. whole word method! app. 250 words/min
- Language Strongly Influences Thought
- Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: one's native language determines the way the world is perceived and understood; there is no good evidence for strong Linguistic Relativity
- Indirect-Access Hypothesis
- word recognition is phonologically mediated. phonics!
- Left Hemisphere Specialization
- verbal tasks (speech perception & production, reading & writing, complex grammar, speech output
- Language Depends on Cognition
- Support: thought precedes language, basic color words often designate focal colors that correspond to high color senstivity, highly differentiated terms for a category occur only if category is highly significant for users, languages tend to evolve to reflect cognitively important variation
- Anchoring & Adjustment
- strategy of starting from some initial estimate or anchor, then adjusting it. (Gandhi die before 140? power of first impression)
- Stages
- *1. Registration & preparation *2. Generating possible solutions 3. Incubation - take a break 4. Insight - sudden illumination 5. Verification - check solution
- Theories of Speech Perception
- Template & Feature Theories. Motor Theory. must account for stable phoneme perception despite variability in underlying acoustic patterns
- Prospect Theory
- consequences are viewed in terms of changes from a reference level (sensory adaptation level) with a diminishing returns function for both positive and negative outcomes. value function is steeper for losses than gains. risk aversion/seeking decisions
- 3 Common Errors & Weaknesses in Decision Making
- Framing Effects, Subjective Probability, Other Judgment Heuristics
- production mechanisms
- every phoneme has a unique manner of production
- 4 parts of grammar
- syntax, phonology, semantics, pragmatics
- 3 methods of problem solving
- trial & error (inefficient), algorithm, heuristics
- perceiving and producing expressions
- perception and production of emotion in speech, interpreting the emotional expression of faces, left hemiface is more expressive in adults (esp. for neg. emotions)
- Probability Matching
- tend to select based on relative frequency of events rather than to maximize success
- components of spoken language
- phonemes, morphemes, grammar
- Mental Set
- tendency to respond in a certain way. help or hurt. 1. functional fixedness, 2. perceptual organization
- The Reading Process
- top-down and bottom-up. online tasks, reading comprehension
- Lateralization
- Hemispheric Specialization. contralateral. slightly less lateralization in women for spatial and verbal abilities. shown by split-brain patients
- Analogical Reasoning
- base decision on previous situation that seems similar (relevant) - corn in Ohio?
- semantics
- rules of meaning
- algorithm
- rule or set of rules that always produces a solution within a finite # of steps (addition, subtraction)
- phonemic context effect
- phonemes are context-sensitive
- "Unlucky Day" Hot Hand
- belief that usual odds don't hold
- recovery of function (after unilateral damage)
- age (6-8 = full. after puberty = limited). handedness (left handers>right)
- psycholinguistics
- study of language as it is learned and used
- Availability Heuristic
- tend to make judgments on basis of what is readily brought to mind. 1. unrepresentative exposure (media coverage), 2. accessibility (incomplete memory)
- context aids comprehension
- understanding words often requires speech context. 47%
- 5 limitations & common errors of deduction
- Inherent limitation, Confirmation bias, Logical Fallacies, Principle of Caution, Belief-Bias Effects
- Motor Theory
- perception via decoding of manner of production. phonetic info is perceived in a biologically distinct system ("module") "specialized to detect the intended gestures of the speaker that are the basis for phonetic categories
- Heuristics
- chancy short cuts. means-end heuristic - divide and conquer. analogies - refer to similar one
- 2 types of logical reasoning
- form not content. Inductive - probablistic based on experience. Deductive - conclusion from premises
- bimodal perception
- poora quality speech can be processed & perceived as either sounds or speech
- time for speech perception
- usually 12 per second; max=50 per second. non-speech: 1.5 per second
- 2 Points of Thinking & Decision Making
- thinking is often irrational or inconsistent. we often use judgment heuristics that are easy to apply, often lead to reasonable decisions, and may lead to poor decisions
- Hindsight Bias
- difficult to ignore knowledge of outcomes. underestimate difficulty of various problems.
- language
- shared symbolic system for communication
- 3 contributions of Gestalt psychology
- viewpoint, stages, mental set
- parallel transmission
- temporal overlap in production of neighboring phoneme
- 3 Theories of Decision Making
- Expected Utility Theory, Subjective Expected Utility, Prospect Theory
- Subjective Expected Utility
- usefulness or personal value, not objective value, guides decisions.
- morphemes
- smallest meaningful units
- non-human languages
- restricted context, predictable, no sentences
- 3 types of Deductive Reasoning
- Propositional (if..then). Relational (< > =). Quantificational (more/less)
- Lateralization of Cognitive Functions
- left hemisphere specialization, right hemispheric specialization, language lateralization & handedness, recovery of function
- Perceptual Organization
- 9 dot problem, wooden match triangles
- phonemes
- smallest units of sound that affect meaning, 45-46, produce categorical perception
- Dual-Access Hypothesis
- both routes needed, although phonics is critically important
- online tasks
- microanalysis of reading as it happens. gaze contingent paradigm (saccades & fixations). eye-contingent displays (monitor eye movements & change the display depending on movement or location of gaze
- reading comprehension
- standard comprehension tests have subjects read a passage, then take a memory or comprehension test
- pragmatics
- social rules about language use
- Inherent Limitation
- only concerned with validity (not truth)
- 3 ways to reject unacceptable sentences
- syntactic violations, semantic violations, phonological violations
- Expected Utility Theory
- objective usefulness or value will determine decisions. normative and frequently violated theory
- 2 ways to explain ambiguity
- structural ambiguity, lexical ambiguity
- Template & Feature Theories
- we detect a sequence of phonemes, each of which has unique and consistent acoustic properties. like Morse code
- phonology
- set of rules for combining phonemes
- word segmentation problem
- words are seldom separated by periods of silence. same for phonemes
- Other Judgment Heuristics
- Availability Heuristic, Analogical Reasoning, Simulation Heuristic, Anchoring & Adjustment
- visuospatial tasks
- spatial orientation, stereognosis, matching patterns, depth judgments
- 4 ways Reading is easier than speech perception
- no word segmentation, no parallel transmission, can re-read material, can control rate of input
- Subjective Probability
- ppl fail to act in accordance with expected value. "unlucky day," gamblers fallacy, probability matching, representativeness heuristic
- Functional Fixedness
- tendency to see an object as having a certain use (matchbox problem, 2cord)
- Simulation Heuristic
- judge situations on ease with which you can imagine (mentally simulate) alternatives
- Gambler's Fallacy
- belief that sequences of chance events should be balanced (number is due for a win, airline due for a crash)
- validity vs truth
- form vs content. Soundness = validity + truth