Anatomy Lab Practical

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central nervous system: consists of the brain and spinal cord, integrating center that interprets incoming information, makes decisions, and initiates signals to create responses within the body.
peripheral nervous system: includes the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, serves to carry out signals to and from the integrating center, providing routes of communication between the body periphery and the CNS
afferent: input component of the PNS, consists of sensory receptors that respond to stimuli from the internal and external environments
efferent: output, consists of neurons that conduct motor signals from the CNS to various effector organs
Somatic nervous system: targets skeletal muscle cells
autonomic nervous system: portion which targets smooth and cardiac muscle, and glands
neurons: excitable cells of the nervous system specialized to conduct electrical signals known as action potentials
cell body (soma): contains most of the organelles of the neuron including the nucleus
dendrites: extend from the soma and receive electrical impulses from other neurons
axon: extends from the soma and propogates the electrical signals away from the soma and towards the axon terminals
neurotransmitters: chemicals used to transfer electrical signals from one excitable cell to another
unipolar: pseudounipolar
bipolar: two processes coming off
multipolar: multiple processes coming off
sensory neurons: conduct action potentials toward the CNS
motor neurons: conduct motor impulses away from the CNS
interneurons: reside entirely within the CNS and link sensory and motor
neuroglia- fxns: nerve glue, provide support to neurons
produce CSF, produce myelin sheaths, form the blood-CSF and blood-brain barriers, act as phagocytes, repair damaged neurons
CSF: cerebrospinal fluid, cushions and supports the brain and spinal cord withink the dorsal body cavity
myelin sheaths: surround myelinated axons and increase the speed of condution of action potentials
brain: center of intelligence, memory, and emotion
four principal parts of the brain: cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, brain stem
diencephalon: connects the cerebrum to the brain stem, thalamus and hypothalamus
brain stem: continuous with spinal cord, includes pons, medulla, and midbrain
white matter: composed of myelinated axons and many different neurons
gray matter: absence of myelin, the gray matter in the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex
gyri: convolutions caused by folding of the brain when gray matter grows faster than white matter
fissures: deep
sulci: shallow
longitudinal fissure: divides the cerebrum into the right and left cerebral hemispheres
corpus callosum: internal structure that links the right and left hemispheres
central sulcus: depression that divides the brain into the anterior and posterior components
cerebellum white and gray matter: called the arbor vitae (tree of life), gray matter is cerebellar cortex
meninges: connective tissue coverings that surround the brain and spinal cord, protect the underlying neural tissues and provide stability
dura mater: toughest outermost meningeal layer, outer layer fuses with periosteum of skull, inner layer folds into cranial cavity
3 major dural folds: falx cerebri, falx cerebelli, tentorium cerebelli
falx cerebri: extends into the longitudinal fissure
falx cerebelli: extends between the cerebellar hemispheres
tentorium cerebelli: extends between the cerebrum and cerebellum, forming a tent of dura mater over the cerebellum
sinus: at points where the inner dura folds into the cranial cavity, contains venous blood
arachnoid meningeal layer: deep to the dura mater, comprised of collagen and some elastic fibers, web-like fashion
subarachnoid space: cerebrospinal fluid flows around the brain and spinal cord
pia mater: deepest and most delicate layer. adheres to the brain surface, penetrating every sulci and fissure
meningitis: inflammation of one or more of the meningeal layers
cerebrospinal fluid: CSF is a clear, colorless fluid comprised of water, glucose, ions, and proteins, circulates around the brain
fxn of cerebrospinal fluid: cushion and provide a shock absorbing medium for the brain within the cranial cavity, creates an optimal enrionment for the generation of action potentials, and provides a means for the exchange of nutrients and wastes between the blood and the tissues of the CNS
CSF formed where?: in ventricles of the brain
flow into the 3rd ventricle by the interventricular foramen, through 4th ventricle through cerebral aqueduct, through apertures to subarachnoid space and central canal
arachnoid villi: extensions of the arachnoid layer, serve as sites of reabsorption of CSF into the dural sinuses
three basic types of functional areas of the brain: sensory, motor, association
association areas: involved in the development of memory of sensory stimuli or motor skills
primary motor area: location: pre-central gyrus, anterior to central sulcus
fxn: coordinate the voluntary activation of skeletal muscle
premotor area: loc: anterior to primary motor area
fxn: control output of primary motor area, develops patterns of nueronal signalling for complex motor skills such as walking, running, or riding bike
motor speech area: Broca's area
loc: inferior to premotor area
fxn: control activity of the muscles involved in production of speech, translation of conscious thought into speech
primary somatosensory area: loc: post-central gyrus
fxn: receive and interpret info from sensory neurons regarding stimuli such as touch, pain, temp, and pressure
somatosensory association area: loc: posterior to primary somatosensory area
fxn: stores the memory of past sensory stimuli
primary auditory area: loc: temporal lobe
fxn: receive sensory input from the vestibulocochlear nerve that innervates the hearing apparatus of ear, basic info on characteristics of sound interpretted
auditory association area: loc: posterior to primary auditory
fxn: act to interpret sound
primary visual area: loc: occipital lobe
fxn: receive sensory inputs from the optic nerve regarding visual stimuli, interprets incoming info on the color, shape, and movement of a visual stimulus
visual association area: loc: anterior to pirmary visual
fxn: memory of visual stimuli develops here for recognizing objects already seen
thalamus: serves as a relay station for incoming sensory stimuli, routed by the thalamus to the appropriate region for interpretation
hypothalamus: contribute to maintenence of homeostasis, regulation of the activities of the centers in the pons and medulla that control heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, reg of hormonal secretions of pituitary gland, body temp regulation, reg of eating and drinking
medulla oblongata: centers for the regulation of breathing and cardiovascular function
pons: controls breathing, bridge between medulla and the rest of the brain
midbrain: contains the cerebral peduncles (bundles of axons within the CNS that relay motor and sensory impulses to and from the cortex) and the corpora quadrigemina (fxn in visual and auditory reflexes)
cerebellum: provides proprioceptive feedback from muscles and tendons during body movements, assists in posture and balance
proprioceptors: provide info on the location and position of various body segments
name the twelve cranial nerves and their type: OOOTTAFVGVAH

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fxns of the twelve types of nerves: write down
sclera: white of eye, adds to shape of eye and provides protection
cornea: anteriormost portion of sclera, appears cloudy, first portion of eye to receive light
conjunctiva: mucous membrane that protects cornea from mechanical damage
optic nerve: carries info regarding visual stimuli to occipital lobe
ciliary body: black pigmented body that appears as a halo encircling lengs, mostly muscle, secretes aqueous humor
lens: biconvex structure that is hard, change in shape affects focusing of light on retina
suspensory ligaments: halo of delicate fibers attaching the lens to the ciliary body
iris: anterior continuation of ciliary body penetrated by the pupil, gives the eye its color
choroid: posterior continuation of the ciliary body, iridescent in nocturnal animals
retina: delicate yellowish-white membrane that easily separates from the choroid layer, contains the photoreceptors necessary for vision
tapetum lucidum: iridescent layer found in nocturnal animals for maximizing vision
aqueous humor: watery liquid circulates anterior cavity of eye
vitreous humor: thick, gelatinous substance located in the posterior cavity of the eye behind the lens, helps maintain position of the retina
relex: rapid, automatic responses to particular internal or external stimuli
reflex arc: wiring of a reflex
path of reflex: sensory receptor, sensory neuron, integrating center, motor neuron, effector
integrating center either...: spinal cord or brain dependinig on where afferent information is processed
monosynaptic: one synapse formed
polysynaptic: multiple synapses formed
muscle spindles: reflex which activates stretch receptors
babinski's sign: abnormal reponse to plantar reflex test, toes separate and big toe extends, normal in newborns
somatic (general) sensation: pain, touch, temp, proprioception, less complex and distributed throughout the body namely the skin
special sensation: vision, hearing, smell, taste, equilibrium, found in more localized regions
three types of somatic sensory receptors: mechanoreceptors, thermorecpetors, nociceptors
mechanoreceptors: provide sensations of touch, pressure, and proprioception, those that respond to touch or pressure are tactile receptors
nociceptors: respond to pain
thermoreceptros: respond to temperature
tactile receptors: free nerve endings, root hair plexuses, merkel discs, meissner's corpuscles, pacinian corpuscles, end organs of ruffini
two proprioreceptive mechanoreceptors: golgi tendon organs and muscle spindles, respond to muscle tension development and stretch respectively
free nerve endings: dendrites of sensory neurons located in the superficial layers of the skin. these receptors are sensitive to touch and pressure
meisnner's corpuscles: large structures found in abundance in dermis of eyelids, lips, and fingertips, respond to sensations of fine touch and pressure
hair root plexuses: dendrites arranged in networks around hair follicles that monitor the mechanical distortions of hair
end organs of ruffini: receptors in the deeper parts of the dermis that are sensitive to pressure and distortion of skin
merkel discs: fine touch and pressure receptors located in the epidermis of the skin
pacinian corpuscles: receptors in the dermis that respond to deep pressure
negative afterimages: when temperature stimulus changed rapidly and significantly in magnitude, two factors which enhance sensation of temp.
receptive field: term that describes the area within which a cutaneous receptor can respond to a particular stimulus, larger the field less ability to interpret exact location of stimulus
referred pain: sensation experienced when pain seems to be arising in one area of the body, although the actual site of the painful stimulus is elsewhere

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