PHYAN Exam 4
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- WHat is a white blood cell called?
- Leukocyte
- Why are WBCs important?
-
-crucial to help body fight disease
-produces more, in response to disease or injury - Which kind of cell is completely intact? Contains a nuclei and organelles. . . .
- WBCs
- How do WBCs travel?
- via blood vessels
- What is Leukemia?
-
-cancer of WBC line in bone marrow
-immature and incapable of immune fxn - What r the 2 types of Leukocytes?
-
Granulocytes
Agranulocytes - What do all of the granulocytes have in common?
-
-have lobed nuclei
-r all phagocytic` - What r the 3 granulocytes?
-
-Neutrophils
-Eosiniohils
-Basophils - What is a neutrophil?
-
GRANULOCYTE
-Most abundant WBC
-Has fine granules
-Extremely phagocytic
-Attacks BACTERIAL infections - What is a Eosinophil?
-
GRANULOCYTE
-2 lobed nuclei & red granules
-Attacks parasites and worms - What is a Basophil?
-
GRANULOCYTE
-rarest
-has large, blue, histamine containing granules
-Active in allergies & inflammation
-Releases histamine (vasodilator) - What order (from largest amt to smallest) do the WBCs go in?
-
N EVR
L ICK
M Y
E ASTER
B UNNY - What r the 2 AGRANULOCYTES?
-
-Lymphocytes
-Monocytes - What do all agranulocytes have in common?
-
-Lack of visible granules
-Nuclei r spherical or kidney shaped - Lymphocytes . . .
-
AGRANULOCYTE
-Have Large, purple nucleus (takes up most of cell)
-tiny cell
-2nd most abundant - Where do lymphocytes reside?
-
Lymphoid tissue:
-lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils
-immunity cells - What is a monocyte?
-
-Largest WBC
-"U" shaped w/ dark blue nucleus - Where do monocytes migrate?
- into the tissues, where they become macrophages
- Order of the Leukocyte cells, largest to smallest % in body.
-
Neutrophils
Leukocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils - What is a platelet?
- Fragments of large cells
- What is the name of the large cells that platelets are fragmented from?
- MEGAKARYOCYTES
- PLatelets are essential for. . .
- Blood clotting
-
When there is a broken blood vessel, what do the platelets do?
4 steps. . . -
a) stick to damaged site
-release chemicals tha attract more platelets
-form a temporary plug to seal the break
b) Secrete SEROTONIN
-causing vessel to spasm (contract)
-narrowing vessel
c) Secrete chemicals that start a:
-CLOTTING CASCADE
-Coagulation of the blood occurs in 3-6 minutes
d) Secrete chemicals that:
- Stimulate regrowth of damaged tissue
-dissolve clot - Blood cell formation is called:
- Hematopoeisis
- Hematopoeisis is in:
-
-red bone marrow
-adult's axial skeleton - Where do all of the blood cells arise from?
- HEMOCYTOBLASTS (stem cells)
- The body can compensate for blood losses up to about what percentage of total volume?
-
30%
-more than that would be fatal - Transfusion of mismatched blood can be. . .
- fatal
- Whole blood transfusions are routine. What r the steps?
-
-blood bank collects the blood
-mixes it with anticoagulant
-can be stored for up to 35 days - Blood types are based on:
- Interactions between antigens and antibodies
- Antigens r:
-
- complex molecules (PRO)
- genetically unique
- occur on all membranes
- enable body to distinguish own cells
- detect foreign antigens
- activate the immune response
- response includes the secretion of antibodies, which binds ro antigen and destroys it - RBCs contain
- antigens
- Antigens are in
- plasma
- Transfusion of mismatched blood type causes:
-
- plasma antibodies to bind RBC antigens, clumping cells and clogging blood vessels
- release of hemoglobin causes kidney failure - What is released, when mismatched blood is transfused causing the kindey to fail?
- hemoglobin
- WHat type of antigen does Type A blood have?
- A antigen
- WHat type of antigen does Type B blood have?
- B antigen
- WHat type of antigen does Type AB blood have?
- AB antigen
- WHat type of antigen does Type O blood have?
-
no antigens
UNIVERSAL DONOR - WHen are antibodies formed?
- after birth
- Type A forms what antibodies?
- anti B antibodies
- Type B forms what antibodies?
- anti A antibodies
- Type AB forms what antibodies?
-
doesn't form any
UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT - Type O forms what antibodies?
- anti AB antibodies
- 2 possible incompatibility of transfusion, rxns:
-
- recipient's anitbodies attack transfused cells
- antibodies in transfused plasma attacks recipient's cells - WHat is the Rh factor?
-
another RBC antigen
+ or - - Is it better to have the Rh or not to have it?
- better to have it
- Erythroblastosis fetalis
-
Mother Rh -
Baby Rh +
during delivery, the mother may be exposed to the baby's Rh+ blood and she will begin to form anti Rh antibodies
-if she becomes preggers again w/ and Rh baby, her antibodies will cross the placenta and destroy the baby's RBCs
-baby becomes anemic, hypoxic and then brain dead, and death come - WHat is the treatment of Erythroblastosis fetalis?
-
Rhogam
- contains anti Rh antibodies which will bind with the Rh + cells
- blocking the mother's immune response and not allowing her to make her own antibodies against the Rh antigen - When is rhogam given to the mother?
- B4 or soon after delivery
- the hardware that transports the blood consists of:
-
- heart pump
- blood vessels - pipes - Where is the heart located?
- in the thoracic cavity, between the lungs
- Your heart is about the size of your:
- clenched fist
- The heart is a
- hollow, 4 chambered muscular organ
- which end of the heart is the inferior end and tilts to the left?
- APEX
- What does the APEX contact?
- the diaphragm
- The broad superior part of the heart where vessels attach?
- BASE
- WHat is the loose fitting sac that encloses and protects the heart?
- PERICARDIAL SAC
- How does the pericardial sac protect the heart?
-
- Isolates the heart from other organs
- Prevents overexpansion
- Protects heart from giving or recieving infections - Where around the heart is the slippery fluid?
- PERICARDIAL SPACE
- What is the slippery fluid in the pericardial space called?
- PERICARDIAL FLUID
- What does the pericardial fluid do?>
-
- lubricates the heart
- allows it to beat almost w/o friction - What are the 3 layes of the heart wall called?
-
- Epicardium
- Myocardium
- Endocardium - Which layer of the heart wall it the outermost?
- Epicardium
- What is the epicardium made of?
- epithelial tissue
- Which layer of the heart is the thick, middle layer?
- Myocardium
- What is the myocardium made of?
- cardiac muscle
- Thickness of mycardium varies depending on:
- - contraction needed to eject blood from the area
- Which area of the heart has the thickest muscle?
- left ventricle
- Why does the L ventricle need such a big muscle?
- B/c it's pumping blood into the whole body
- Which layer of the heart wall is the inner layer?
- Endocardium
- Which lining of the heart is smooth, inner and lines the chambers and valves?
- Endocardium
- What is the endocardium made up of?
-
Simple squamous epithemium overlying thin areolar tissue
-it is continuous with the epi lining bvs - The chambers in the heart the recieve blood returning to the heart in veins:
- ATRIA
- Blood travels TO the heart in:
- Veins
- The atria are the 2 superior or inferior chambers of the heart?
- SUPERIOR
-
which atrium recieves venous blood from:
- superior vena cava
- inferior vena cave
- coronary sinus - RIGHT ATRIUM
- Drains blood superior to diaphragm
- Superior vena cava
- Drains blood inferior to diaphragm
- Inferior vena cava
- Drains heart muscle itself
- Coronary sinus
-
Which atrium recives blood from:
- 4 pulmonary veins - LEFT ATRIUM
- Which veins are the only ones in the body to have oxygenated venous blood in the body?
- the pulmonary veins, after they go through the lungs and get oxygenated blood
- Which chambers in the heart have thin walls?
-
the atria
-light workload
-just pump blood into ventricles below and have the help of gravity - What r the 2 inferior chambers of the heart?
-
ventricles
- pumps of the heart - Which chambers have a contraction that propels blood out of the heart and into the arteries?
- Ventricles
- Blood going away from the heart
-
Arterial blood
-travels in arteries
-usually oxygenated - recieves blood from the right atrium
- right ventricle
- the right ventricle pumps blood into the
- pulmonary trunk
- the pulmonary trunk branches into
-
R & L pulmonary arteries
- the only deoxygenated arterial blood - blood from pulmonary arteries goes to
- the lungs for gas exchange
- the left ventricle pumps blood into the
- aorta & entire body
- Ventricles are seperated by a thick:
- INERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM
- Ensure one-way flow of blood through the heart
- Heart valves
- atrioventricular (AV) valves
-
- between each atrium and its ventricle
- prevents backflow into atria when ventricles contract - Right AV valve
- tricuspid valve
- Left AV Valve
-
Bicuspid valve or
Mitral valve - between ventricles & large vessles, prevent backflow into ventricles when relaxed. . .
- semilunar valves
- Between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk:
- pulmonary semilunar valve
- Between Left ventricle and aorta:
- Aortic semilunar valve
- Average heart beats/min
- 75
- the heart has a _____ metabolic rate.
- HIGH
- The heart requires an abundant supply of:
- oxygen and nutrients
- Does the blood in the heart nourish the chambers?
- NO!!!
- Myocardium has
- extensive BVS
- Coronary circulation ensures that:
- nutrients reach every muscle cell
- R & L coronary arteries
-
-arise at base of aorta
-circle the heart in the ATRIOVENTRICULAR (coronary) GROOVE
-lie in epicardium, branch down into myocardium
-ALL coronary veins converge into: CORONARY SINUS . . . which empties into the Right atrium - All coronary veins converge into:
- CORONARY SINUS
- the coronary sinus epties into:
- Right Atrium
- What is it called when you have TEMPORARY ISCHEMIA to the myocardium?
- Angina Pectoris
- What is ischemia?
- insufficient blood delivery
- What does angina pectoris feel like?
- heavyness or pain in chest
- What happens to body when you have Angina Pectoris?
-
- Myocardium becomes hypoxic & relies on anearobic metabolism
- which then creates lactic acid
- There is reduced coronary blood flow caused by:
ATHEROSCLEROSIS or
Blood clot (thrombosis)
- Myocardial cells are damaged but they recover - When myocardium relies on anaerobic metabolism, what does it produce?
- Lactic acid
- Myocardium becomes hypoxic when you have:
- angina pectoris
- What is a myocardial infarction?
- heart attack
- what is fibrillation?
-
uncoordinated contractions of the heart
- Heart turns into a completely useless pump
- common cause of death -
-certain myocytes r self-excitable, initiate their own depolarization because of leaky Na+ channels
-they pass the action potential from cell to cell via gap junctions - MYOGENIC
- skeletal muscle needs to be innervated but the heart is
- myogenic
- controls the rate & sequence of contraction
- Intrinsic conduction system
- What is the intrinsic conduction system composed of?
-
-Sinoatrial node "pacemaker"
-Atrioventricular node
-AV bundle, Bundle branches & Purkinje fibers - Special group of cells in the rught atrium that depolarizes at the fastest rate and sets the pace. Vagal tone. The "Pacemaker"
- Sinoatrial Node
- The vagal tone does what to the heart beat?
- slows it down
- recieves the impulse from the SA node. The impulse is delayed to allow ventricles to fill
- Atrioventricular Node
- A network of fibers that carries the contraction signal to the ventricular septum
- AV bundle, Bundle branches, Pukinje fibers
- where does the contraction of ventricles begin?
- at the APEX
- Where are the av bundle bundle branches and purkinje fibers located?
- interventricular septum & ventricle walls
- The electircal currents generated and transmitted through the heart & body
- Electrocardiography
- the graphic recording of electrical changes
- Electrocardiogram (ECG)
- Abnormalities in shape and time of electrical impulses indicate
-
- problems with intrinsic conduction system
- or and myocardial infarction
-- area of dead myocytes - Normal contraction on heart
-
- atria contract simultaneously
- they relax and the ventricels contract - Systole
-
Contraction
120/60
(high# or top#) - Diastole
-
Relaxation
120/60
(low # or bottom #) - One complete heart beat takes about
- .8 seconds
-
- Atrial diastole, ventricular systole begins
- AV valves close (preventing backflow)
-- S1 (not due to valve closure)
- Semilunar valves r forced open
- Blood pushes into large arteries
- Atria r filling w/ blood - Ventricular Systole
-
- Ventricular diastole
- Semilunar valves close
-- preventing backflow into ventricles
-- S2 "DUB"
- Ventricles r momentarily closed chambers
- AV valves open, ventricels begin to flow - Early Diastole
- In the cardiac cycle, when is the S1 aka LUB?
- During ventricular systole
- In the cardiac cycle, when is the S2 aka DUB?
- Early Diastole
- What are the 3 periods of the cardiac cycle?
-
- Mid-to-Late Diastole
- Ventricular Systole
- Early Daistole - Most body cells are stationary, making them uncapable of:
-
-getting food and oxygen
-moving away from their own waste - What does blood transport?
-
- Water
- Nutrients
- O2
- Hormones
- Heat
- (waste) takes away - The only fluid tissue
- BLOOD
- Connective tissue: living cells seperated by a nonliving matrix
- Blood
- Erythrocytes
- RBCs
- What do erythrocytes transport?
-
O2
they make up 45% of blood volume (hematocrit) - Leukocytes
- WBCs
- What are leukocytes for the body?
- defense system
- Platelets
- cell fragments
- What another name for platelets?
- thrombocytes
- What are platelets involved in?
- blood clotting
- Platelets and leukocytes make up what percentage of blood in the body?
- less than 1%
- liquid part of blood
- plasma
-
-90% water
-yellowish
-contains over 100 different substances - plasma
-
-amino acid based hormones
-antibodies
-albumin
-clotting proteins - Plasma Proteins
- Structure of erythrocytes. . .
-
- biconcave discs
-- large surface area for gas exchange
-- no organelles - SInce erythrocytes lack mitochondria they have to generate ATP by:
-
anaerobic glycolysis
- which also means that they don't use the O2 for themselves. - Since erythrocytes don't have a nucleus:
-
- can't synthesize proteins, grow or divide
- have a lifespan of 100-200 days
- become old and fragile, die in the spleen - Where do erythrocytes die?
- SPLEEN
- Erythrocytes are a sac of
- hemoglobin
- Hemoglobin
-
- iron containing protein (pigment)
- binds and transports O2
- 280 million Hb molecules in 1 RBC
- contains 4 iron atoms - RBC homeostasis
-
- 250 million made each second
- # is closely monitored
- hormonally controlled - WHen you have low Blood O2, what is released and from where?
-
the kidney releases
ERYTHROPOEITIN (EPO)
-red bone marrow. . . increases RBC production - Excess RBCs
- polycythemia
-
- cancer of red cell line in bone marrow
- hematocrit of 80%
- increased blood viscosity (super thick)(pulls water out of tissue)
- strains heart - Primary polycythemia
-
- every other cause
- usually appropriate response to:
-- altitude, exercise, dehydration - Secondary polycythemia
- Artificially induced polycythemia
- blood doping
-
-Low O2 carrying capability of the blood
-pale, fatigued, short of breath , chilly - Anemia
- Anemia causes:
-
-insufficient # of RBCs
-decreased hemoglobin content
-abnormal hemoglobin - When u have an isufficient # of RBCs. . .
-
- hemorraging may occur
- hemolysis (destruction of RBCs)
- bone marrow failure - iron or vitamin deficiency
- decreased hemoglobin content
- sickle-cell anemia
-
-1 of the aa in the Hb is wrong
-Hbs stick together under low O2 conditions
-RBC becomes sticky & sharp
-tissues become hypoxic (low O2) - intense pain
-transfusion - where did sickle cell anemia originate from?
-
Africa - "Malarial Belt"
--malaria paracite eats hemoglobin
--can't digest Hbs (sickle hemoglobin)
--gene survives - Volume of blood pumped out of the ventricle in one contraction (70ml)
- Stroke Volume (SV)
- # of contractions per minute
- Heart Rate (HR)
- Volume of blood pumped out of the heart in 1 minute
- Cardiac Output (CO)
- Average adult blood volume is:
-
5000ml
blood through body in 1 minute - Equation for blood volume
- CO = HR * SV
-
Autonomic NS
Sympathetic NS
Heart Rate -
physical or emotional stress
- Stimulates the SA & AV nodes & the cardiac muscle itself
--increases HR & SV
--Increases delivery of O2 & nutrients to body -
Autonomic NS
Parasympathetic NS
Heart Rate -
physical or emotional stress. When demands decline:
heart rate slows down - Hormone that mimics the sympathetic NS
- Epinephrine
- Hormone that affects the HR & SV
- Thyroid Hormone
- What do ions cause in the blood?
-
-Hypocalcemia
-hypercalcemia
-imbalances of Na and K cause arryhthmias - Hypocalcemia in the blood causes HR to
- decrease
- Hypercalcemia in the blood
- prolongs contractions and may stop the heart
- imbalances of Na and K in the blood may cause
- arrhythmias
- Physical factors affecting heart rate:
-
age
gender
heat -
Weakening of the heart so circulation doesn't meet tissue needs due to:
-clogging of coronary vessels
-high blood pressure
-multiple myocardial infarctions
blood backs up
EDEMA - Congestive Heart Failure
-
have 1 or 2 nuclei
r short and branching
r not arranged in bundles - Cardiac muscle fibers
- Cardiac cells are joined end to end by:
- intercalated discs
- 3 features of the intercalated discs:
-
1) Adjacent membranes have interdigitating folds
2)Desmosomes (prevent seperation during contraction)
3) Gap junctions -
-hollow cylinders allow ions to pass
-transmit action potential
-throughout heart
--cells electrically stimulate eachother - Gap Junctions
- Part of the intercalated discs that prevents seperation during contraction
- Desmosomes
- The dynamic (everchanging) pipes of the cardiovascular system
- Blood vessels
- Blood leaving heart passes through:
-
Arteries
-carry blood away from heart
-usually oxygenated
-become progressively smaller - Blood through body travels through these "pipes" starting at heart
-
arteries
arterioles
capillaries
venules
veins - Blood returning to heart passes through:
-
Veins
-carry blood to heart
-usually deoxygenated
-become progressively larger - the business end of the circulatory system
- capillaries
-
-exchange site
-simple squamous epi
-RBCs have to pass single file - capillaries
-
where are capillaries scarce?
absent? -
tendons and ligaments
absent in cartilage, epi, cornea, & lens of the eye