Biology Chapters 19, 20, 22-24, 29-31

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Taxonomy: =systematics; field of bio that deals with identifying, naming, and classifying
Nomenclature: giving groups of organisms names
Classification: a way of organizing and retrieving information about species; arrangement of organisms into groups
Phylogenetic relationships: evolutionary relationships that classification systems are based
CLADISTICS: objective method of using evolutionary branching points to determine genealogical/phylogenetic relationships among organisms
CLADOGRAM: =evolutionary tree=phylogeny=hypothesis of evolution
MONOPHYLETIC GROUP: =one that contains a ca and all of its descendents=clade=only groups recognized in classifying organisms.
WHAT DEFINES LIFE?: DNA, ability to reproduce
SHARED DERIVED CHARACTER: cladograms are based on, not shared ancestral characters
OUTGROUP: used to determine ancestral vs. derived characters; organism with the fewest derived traits; any deviation from an outgroup is a derived trait (branching)
INGROUP: a relative of the group under study
PARSIMONY: also used in constructing cladograms (simplest is usually best explanation)
HOMOPLASY/HOMOPLASIOUS CHARACTERS: misleading characters, show reversals or parallelisms
EVOLUTIONARY PARALLELISMS: similar, but evolved different ways; example are wings
HIERARCHICAL RANK: convert cladogram into a set of names; kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
CARL LINNAEUS: concept of 2 part Latin name=binomial=species name; genus + specific epithet, in italics or underlined, capitilized genus
HETEROTROPHIC: organism unable to make its own organic compounds; feeds on others, ie protozoans
AUTOTROPHIC: organism that makes its own food with an environmental energy source and CO2 as its carbon source
DIPLOMONAD: multi-flagella, 2 nuclei, ie Giardia lamblia
GIARDIASIS: caused by Giardia lamblia diplomonad protist; causes intestinal problems
PARABASALID: =trichomonads, multi-flagella, 1 nucleus, protist; ie Trichomonas vaginalis (STD)
EUGLENOZOA: flagellated, single-celled protist, ie euglenoids & kinetoplastids
EUGLENOIDS: autotrophic, contractile vacoule, chloroplasts, ie euglena
CONTRACTILE VACOULE: controls water like a bilge pump
SECONDARY ENDOSYMBIOSIS OF CHLOROPLASTS: chloroplasts of euglenoids and green algae, lives and reproduces inside other's body
KINETOPLASTIDS: heterotrophic, free-living & parasitic, single-large mitochondrion associated with kinetoplast, ie African sleeping sickness & Chagas disease
KINETOPLAST: unique organelle with a large network of DNA
AFRICAN SLEEPING SICKNESS: caused by kinetoplastid, Trypanosoma brucei, vector=tsetse fly, damages CNS
CHAGAS DISEASE: caused by kinetoplastid, T. cruzi, vector=kissing bug, causes cardiac, gastro., or neuro. damage
AMOEBOID PROTOZOANS: heterotrophs (no chloro), lost flagella, pseudopodia
PSEUDOPODIA: "false feet", cytoplasmic extensions of the cell, food capture
RHIZOPODS: "root-like feet" ie amoebas & foramiferans
AMOEBAS: found in soil, fresh & salt water, naked cells
AMOEBIC DYSENTERY: caused by Entamoeba histolytica, contaminates drinking water and food; rhizopods-amoeba
FORAMINIFERANS: sea floor, pseudopodia; rhizopods
ACTINOPODS: "ray feet", radiolarians & heliozoans, silica shell, axopodia
AXOPODIA: used for feeding on actinopods
SLIME MOLDS: not true fungi, similar to amoebas (use pseudopodia), heterotrophic, complex life cycles
PLASMODIAL SLIME MOLDS: does NOT photosynthesize, plasmodium, moves across substrate, cellulose, dry enviro=sex part of cycle
PLASMODIUM: diploid feeding stage of life cycle=single mass of cytoplasm with many nuclei (mitosis without cytokinesis)
CELLULAR SLIME MOLDS: free single cells=feeding stage, cellulose, ie Dictyostelium
PSEUDOPLASMODIUM: food scarce, cells secrete hormone that fuses cells together in slug-like mass; differs from plasmodia bc cells keep identiy
ALVEOLATES: usually single-cell, heterotrophic & autotrophic (secondary symbiosis), alveoli
ALVEOLI: little sacs in outer layer of cell
CILIATES: alveolate, complex single-cell, heterotrophic, cilia, contractile vacoule, 2 types of nuclei: micro & macro, trichocysts, ie Didinium
CILIA: ciliates covered in for movement and feeding
MICRONUCLEUS: of ciliate, mitosis, sexual reproduction
MACRONUCLEUS: of ciliate, jumble of DNA, asexual reproduction
TRICHOCYSTS: harpoon-like structures for feeding
SPOROZOANS: =apicomplexans, alveolates, parasites w/ spore-like infective stage of life cycle, complex life cycyle requiring 2 or more hosts, reduced endosymboint plastid(secondary endosymbiosis), ie Plasmodium & Toxoplasma
MALARIA: Plasmodium, sporozoan, sporozoites transmitted by female mosquito travel to liver, multiply
TOXOPLASMOSIS: Toxoplasma, sporozoan, uses cats as final host, cysts spread from feces to food, cause flu-like symptoms, dangerous to unborn babies
DINOFLAGELLATES: alveolate, mainly autotrophic, free-living, single-celled, provide foundation of marine ecosystems, unusual chromosomes(lack histone proteins), chloroplasts from secondary symbiosis, cellulose plates (2 perpendicular grooves w/ flagells), some bioluminescent
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP: individuals of one species live near, in or on individuals of a different species for at least part of life cycle
ALGAL BLOOM: caused by increase in nutrient levels, a few of these dinoflagellate species produce toxins that kill fish; ie Red Tide
RED TIDE: example of an algal bloom caused by dinogflagellate; Pfiesteria piscidia, heterotrophic, 24 stages
STRAMENOPILES: heterotrophic & autotrophic, flagellated stage of life cycle, 2 flagella (one smooth & one "hairy"); ie Yellow-brown "plants" & Oomycetes
YELLOW-BROWN "PLANTS": Yellow-brown "plants", stramenopile, autotrophic, cellulose walls, includes diatoms, golden algae, coccolithophores=chrysophytes, and brown algae=phaeophytes
CHRYSOPHYTES: =coccolithophores (chrysos=
Greek for golden), Yellow-brown "plant", stramenopiles, single-celled with CACO3 plates
PHAEOPHYTES: Brown algae, Yellow-brown "plant," stramenopiles, multi-cell "seaweeds", complex body, cellulose walls, energy storage,
CHLOROPHYLL A: absorbs red and blue-to-violet wavelengths, ie red algae
CHLOROPHYLL C: brown algae contains
DIATOMS: single-celled, w/ 2 silica "shells", type of yellow-brown "plant", Stramenopile
GOLDEN ALGAE: single-celled w/ cellulose walls, type of yellow-brown "plant", Stramenopile
LAMINARIAN & MANNITOL: not starch, energy storage in brown algae
OOMYCETES: "egg fungus", Stramenopile, water molds, downy mildew, white rust, not true fungi, heterotrophic-saprophytes & parasites, some unicellular, others filaments w/ many nuclei, ie water mold & mildew
SAPROPHYTES: get nutrition from dead stuff, ie some oomycetes
IRISH POTATO FAMINE: caused by oomycete mildew: Phytophthora infestans
RED ALGAE: lack flagella, autotrophs w/ chloroplasts from cyanobacteria, mainly marine, mostly multi-cell, cell walls=cellulose, no centrioles, energy storage, sister to green plants, ie Agar, Porphyra
PHYCOERYTHRIN: a phycobilin, type of accessory pigment, abundant in Red Algae and in cyanobacteria
FLORIDEAN STARCH: energy storage for Red Algae
AGAR: from several different red algae species, extract of slimy wall material, used in foods, cosmetics DNA gels, and bacterial cultures
NORI: sushi algae, Porphyra, used in making sushi
CHLOROPHYTES: green algae, sister to streptophytes, starch, chloroplast, cellulose cell wall, gametes, single-cell
STARCH: energy storage for chlorophytes
CHLOROPHYLL b: chlorophytes have a & b; absorb blue & red-orange wavelength
ANTERIOR WHIPLASH: chlorophytes have gametes with 2 anterior whiplash, on the front of body
PHRAGMOPLAST: shared derived characters of Streptophytes; cell division of phragmoplast-spindle apparatus perpendicular to phragmoplast
OOGAMY: streptophytes have differentiable egg and sperm cells
PLASMODESMATA: =cytoplasmic channels between cells; complex multicell. body w/ parenchyma tissue; shared derived character of streptophytes
CHAROPHYTES: first to possess parenchyma tissue, alternation of generations, gametophyte only present
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS: charophytes possess characteristic life cycle of plants; all green plants go thru this spore-producting & gamete-producing stage during life
GAMETOPHYTE: haploid gamete-producing body that forms during plant life cycles; less dependent on water=smaller gametophyte generation
SPOROPHYTE: vegetative body that produces spore-bearing structures; grows by mitotic cell divisions from a plant zygote
EMBRYOPHYTES: "land plants"-includes "bryophytes" & tracheophytes; make move to land since water has very limited amount of light and CO2
SPOROPOLLENIN: adaptation to living on land; spores w/ sporopollenin wall-specialized wall that resists drying out and decay
FLAVENOIDS: adaptation to living on land; phenolic compounds for uv protection
CUTICLE: adaptation to living on land; adaptation to land; prevents desiccation, coats entire plant body, restricts water loss, but also restricts CO2
ARCHEGONIA & ANTHRIDIA: adaptation to land; multicell gamete-producing structures (protects sperm & egg)
EMBRYO: adaptation to land; young plant, zygote divides much by mitosis to produce embryo; retained/protected inside gametophyte while it grows into a sporophyte
APICAL CELL GROWTH: growth(mitosis) only at the tips of plant(specialized region=meristem)
BRYOPHYTES: embryophyte-streptophyte, includes hornworts+liverworts+mosses; nonvascular land plant requiring free water for fertilization
LIVERWORTS: bryophyte, thallose & leafy, Thallus, gametophyte equal apical growth & unicell rhizoids, some porous, sporophyte-stalked body grows by cell elongation (not apical growth)
THALLUS: on liverworts; plant body that lacks true leaves, stems, and roots
RHIZOIDS: root-like structure; no xylem or phloem
PORES: simple holes; in some thallose plants=some liverworts
CAPSULE: sporangium (where spores are produced)
MOSSES: erect, leafy dominant gametophyte, gametophyte possesses hydroids (water-conducting) ad leptoids(food-conducting) cell analagous to traheophytes, sporophyte elongates by apical growth(still unbranched)
OPERCULUM: cap in mosses for apical growth
PERISTOME TEETH: for dispersal; respond to humidity in mosses
STOMATA: pores for gas exchange and water retention
GUARD CELLS: regulate water and gas exchange thru stomata
LIGNIN: embedded in cell walls for support of cell; adaptation for land due to gravity
TRACHEOPHYTES: includes lycophytes, ferns, & seed plants
APICAL MERISTEMS: branched plant body; mass of dividing cells at root tips and shoot tips; produce hormones
VASCULAR TISSUE: conducting tissue=xylem & phloem; lignin 2nd cell wall of xylem; terrestrial environment is heterogeneous
XYLEM: sclerenchyma(water conduction & support) + parenchyma(storage & transport); complex tissue; thick lignified 2nd walls; tracheid; vessel member; transpiration
PHLOEM: sclerenchyma(support) + parenchyma(nutrient transport); complex tissue; conduting cells possess thin walls almost dead at maturity; sieve cells, sieve tube members
CELL TYPES: parenchyma, sclerenchyma, & collenchyma
TISSUES: simple tissues & complex tissues
TISSUE SYSTEMS: ground tissue system, vascular tissue system, & dermal tissue system
ORGANS: leaves, stems, roots
PARENCHYMA: simple tissue that makes up the bulk of a plant; has roles in photosynthesis, storage, transport, secretion, other tasks; usually with primary cw only
SCLERENCHYMA: simple tissue that supports mature plant parts and commonly protects seeds. Most of its cells have thick, lignin-impregnated walls; primary & secondary cw; function in support and water conduction
COLLENCHYMA: simple tissue that imparts flexible support during primary growth, as in lenthening stems; ie celery
SIMPLE TISSUE: one cell type; parenchyma, sclerenchyma, and collenchyma
COMPLEX TISSUE: several cell types
TRACHEID: =primary water-conducting cell for many tracheophytes; cells elongate, slender, w/ pores for water conduction
VESSEL MEMBER: =more advanced type of water-conducting cell w/ holes in their end walls(perforation plates) found in flowering plants
PERFORATION PLATES: end of wall on vessel member; permits water and air bubbles to flow
COHESION-TENSION THEORY: collective cohesive strength of hydrogen bonds pull up water molecules thru xylem in response to transpiration from leaves
TRANSPIRATION: =evaporation of water from leaves= driving force that pulls water up thru plant, by osmosis
SIEVE CELL: =primary sucrose-conducting cell for many plant groups; cells elongate, slender, w/ pores for sucrose conduction
SIEVE TUBE MEMBER: =more advanced type of sucrose-conducting cells w/ plates in their end walls found in flowering plants
COMPANION CELLS: associated w/ sieve tube member's and function in loading & unloading sucrose to and from stm's; have nucleus are alive & function as controllers
PRESSURE FLOW THEORY: organic compounds flow thru phloem in response to pressure and concentration gradients b/w sources(leaves) & sinks(growing parts where they are being used or stored)
EPIDERMIS: parenchyma; stomata; outermost layer
GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM: usually composed of simple tissues that function in metabolism &/or storage
VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM: composed of complex tissues that function in water and nutrient conduction
DERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM: composed of complex tissues that cover/protect plant surfaces
PRIMARY MERISTEM: =apical meristem, all vascular plants grow in height by this-primary growth; shoot tip, root tip, & dermal, vascular, & ground systems.
SECONDARY MERISTEM: many plants can grow in girth(width) via a lateral(2nd) meristem; vascular cambium & cork cambium
VASCULAR CAMBIUM: secondary meristem that produces 2nd xylem(wood)+2nd phloem
CORK CAMBIUM: 2nd meristem that produces periderm (bark); usually present in stems but sometimes roots too
LEAVES: usually primary photosynthetic organs in plant; external structre=blade+petiole; internal structure=dts-stomata(gas exchange/transpiration), gts-mesophyll(photosynthetic tissue-parenchyma), vts-veins(xylem & phloem)
BLADE: the main photosynthesis portion of leaf
PETIOLE: part of leaf, stalk attaching blade to stem
SIMPLE LEAF: one leaf
COMPOUND LEAF: many blades/leaflets
VEINS: vascular bundles of xylem + phloem
STEM: usually primary supporting & conducting organ of a plant; apical meristem: dts-epidermis, vts-vascular bundles of 1 xylem + phloem, gts-cortex + pith; lateral meristem: dts-cork cambium, vts-vascular cambium, gts-cortex + pith
CORTEX: a rindlike layer; ground tissue; supports parts and stores food
PITH: of most dicot stems, ground tissue inside of ring of vascular bundles; apical=usually parenchyma, lateral=generally lost as plant ages
VASCULAR BUNDLES: array of primary xylem & phloem in multistranded, sheathed cords that thread lengthwise in the ground tissue system
ROOTS: usually primary water-absorbing organs of a plant; external: root cap & root hairs; internal: dts-epidermis w/ root hairs, vts-cylinder of 1 xylem + phloem(can develop wood), gts-cortx + pith(monocots only), endodermis
ROOT HAIRS: elongate epidermal cells that function in absorbing water from soil(often associated w/ fungal symbionts)
ROOT CAP: protective sheath for growing root tip (apical meristem)
ENDODERMIS: filtering layer inside roots that controls absorbed solutes entering xylem; water either goes thru cells(filtered by cw & membrane) or b/w cells (blocked by waxy layer=Casparian strip)
LYCOPHYTES: spike-mosses & club-mosses(NOT MOSSES!); dichotomously branched, microphylls, true roots, lateral sporangia
DICHOTOMOUSLY BRANCHED: branched into 2 equal parts; lycophytes & bryophytes
MICROPHYLLS: small leaves w/ one vein(xylem + phloem conduit)
TRUE ROOTS: multicellular, complex, underground organ for absorbing water and nutrients(xylem + phloem- different from rhizoids)
LATERAL SPORANGIA: ancentral condition=terminal; often concentrated in specialized areas=strobilus(nonflowering plants, a cluster of spore-producing structures)
EUPHYLLOPHYTES: includes ferns + "gymnosperms" + angiosperms; multiflagellate sperm, endogenous roots, & overtopping growth, megaphyll
MULTIFLAGELLATE SPERM: ancentral condion=2
ENDOGENOUS ROOTS: lateral roots originate from inside main root
OVERTOPPING GROWTH: unequal branching of apical meristem(ancestral growth=dichotomous branching)
MEGAPHYLLS: large leaves w/ many veins; evolutionary derived from overtopping-flattening branch system-webbing b/w branches
FERNS: sporophyte dominant w/ megaphylls, endogeneous roots, & overtopped stem growth, sporangia on leaves, sorus
SORUS: cluster of sporangia; ie ferns
LEPTOSPORANGIA: sporangia; stalked, thin-walled, annulus
ANNULUS: sensitive to humidity, opens sporangium, releases spores
SEED PLANTS: includes "gymnosperms" + angiosperms; axillary branching, secondary growth, heterospory
AXILLARY BRANCHING: lateral buds(in leaf axils) that can also branch (ancenstral condition=branching apical meristem only)
STELE: xylem + phloem of a stem or root
PROTOSTELE: primitive type of stele=xylem core surrounded by phloem; produced by apical meristem
EUSTELE: advanced type of stele=units of 1 xylem and 1 phloem(vascular bundles) arranged in a ring; produced by apical meristem
SECONDARY XYLEM: wood!
HETEROSPORY: Seeds! production of 2 types of spores-from unisexual gametophyte(sep. male and female gametophytes)
HOMOSPORY: ancestral condition=homospory=all spores the same-from a bisexual gametophyte=gametophyte that can produce both gametes
SEED: ovule after fertilization in flowering plants
OVULE: for flowering plants, female gametophyte develops on sporophyte
POLLINATION DROPLET: =water; pollen grain lands on at micropyle
INTEGUMENT: protects zygote & developing embryo
MICROSPORANGIUM: microspores develop inside a different sporangium, microspore=male gametophyte w/ 2 sperm-pollen grain
MEGASPORANGIUM: megaspore forms by meiosis in the ovary of seed-bearing plants
MICROPYLE: opening of ovule
GYMNOSPERMS: naked seeds (only 1 integument); conifers & cycads
CONIFERS: cone-bearing plants, well branched stems, simple megaphylls(needles or scales), well-developed wood, cone, disperse by wind, resin in internal canals, microsporangia in strobili
CONE: seeds on complex shoot system
CYCADS: palm-like growth(usually short unbranched stem), soft wood (lots of parenchyma), slime canals w/ poisonous chemicals (cycasins), megaphylls large & compound, seeds on modified leaves-usually in strobilus, microsporangia(pollen) on separate strobilus, insect pollinated
ANGIOSPERMS: flowering plants, simple leaves, xylem w/ vessels, phloem w/ sieve tube members, dble fertilization, flower, ovules w/ 2 integuments, seed
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION: 1 sperm fertilizes egg, 2nd sperm fuses w/ 2 cells of female gametophyte-endosperm
FLOWER: modified stem axis w/ modified leaves attached; sepals-calyx(protective); petals-corolla(pollinator attract); stamens(anther+filament)-androecium(pollen-producing structures); carpels(stigma+style+ovary)-gynoecium(ovule-producing structures)
FRUIT: ovary w/ mature ovules-fruit containing seeds
INFLORESCENCE: clustered flowers; sunflowers
SAPROPHYTES (FUNGI): absorb nutrients from dead stuff
PARASITES (FUNGI): absorb nutrients from live stuff
SYMBIOTIC (FUNGI): lichens and mycorrhizae
CHITIN: cw; glucose polymer w/ nitrogen; shared characteristic w/ animals
MYCELIUM: =body=mass of mulitcell filaments(hyphae); main body of fungus
SEPTA: in fungi, cross walls with pores for organelles to flow, that divide hyphae
MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI: symbiotic fungi on/in plant roots; provides great surface area for water/nutrient absorption, in return plant provides sucrose &/or micronutrients
ENDOMYCORRHIZAE: fungi inside roots, mostly zygomycetes
ECTOMYCORRHIZAE: fungi on outside of roots, mainly basidiomycetes
CHYTRIDS: primitive fungi, spores w/ flagella, multinucleate hyphae
ZYGOMYCETES: black bread molds, no septa, sexual part of life cycle: 2 hyphae strains fuse-nuclei fuse to form zygosporangium(2n)-meiosis-zygospores(n)
ASCOMYCETES: sac fungi, unicell-multicell, septa in hyphae(single spore in each septum), sex cycle: 2 hyphae strains fuse-form ascus(2n)-meiosis-ascospores(n); ie ergot(LSD), brewer's yeast
BASIDIOMYCETES: mushrooms, mycelium=dikaryotic filaments w/ cross walls to control flow of organelles(diplore septa); sex cycle: 2 nuclei fuse-basidium(2n)-meiosis-basidiospores(n)
MUSHROOM: reproductive structure that bears basidia
GILLS: specific area on the mushroom that bear basidia
DEUTEROMYCETES: imperfect fungi; no known sex stage of life cycle, ie housemold, Penicillium was now ascomycete
LICHEN: symbiotic association b/w fungus & an alga; fungus=house(ascomycete), alga=food-maker(chlorophyte or cyanobacterium), asexual reproduction by propagules(dispersal units of fungus + alga) & independently sexually reproduce; forms are crustose (crusty), foliose(leafy), and fruticose(branched)

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